The country’s diverse agro-climatic conditions provide a strong foundation for vegetable cultivation, making it the second-largest producer of vegetables worldwide (Gupta et al., 2025). Wild edible vegetables constitute an integral component of indigenous food systems and traditional diets across many parts of India (Ray et al., 2020). These plant resources are often consumed by rural and tribal communities as seasonal foods and are valued for their nutritional, medicinal and therapeutic properties (Vinceti et al., 2012). Despite their widespread traditional use, many wild vegetables remain underutilized and poorly documented in scientific literature, leading to their gradual neglect in modern diets (Sahoo et al., 2021).
       
India is endowed with rich biodiversity and the state of Maharashtra hosts a wide range of wild edible plant species adapted to diverse agro-climatic conditions. In regions such as Aurangabad district, wild vegetables like Kena, Kanchnar (Koilar), Lutu and Ambat vel are traditionally consumed as leafy vegetables, curries, or stir-fried preparations (Cámara et al., 2016). These plants are often rich sources of essential nutrients, dietary fibre, minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds, including phenolics and antioxidants, which contribute to the prevention of micronutrient deficiencies and oxidative stress-related disorders (Jacob et al., 2020).
       
Oxidative stress caused by free radicals is implicated in the development of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, cancer and neurodegenerative conditions. Plant-based antioxidants, particularly phenolic compounds, play a crucial role in neutralizing free radicals and protecting cellular components. Wild vegetables, due to their exposure to natural environmental stress, often accumulate higher levels of phytochemicals compared to cultivated varieties (Zhao et al., 2006).
       
Given the growing interest in functional foods and sustainable nutrition, there is an urgent need to scientifically evaluate the nutritional and antioxidant potential of wild edible vegetables (González‑Zamorano et al., 2025). Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the proximate composition, micronutrient profile and antioxidant properties of selected wild edible vegetables collected from Aurangabad, Maharashtra, with the objective of highlighting their nutritional significance and potential role in food and nutrition security.

Sample collection
 
Fresh samples of five wild edible vegetables-Kena (Commelina benghalensis L.), Kanchnar/Koilar (white flower) (Bauhinia variegata var. candida), Lutu (leaves) (Ipomea aquatica forssk.), Lutu (stem) (Ipomea aquatica forssk.) and Ambat vel [Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin] were collected from different locations in (Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar) Aurangabad district, Maharashtra. The samples were identified based on local nomenclature and traditional knowledge. Collected samples were cleaned thoroughly with potable water to remove soil and debris and were shade-dried where required prior to analysis.
 
Proximate analysis
 
Proximate composition, including moisture, ash, fat, protein, fibre and carbohydrate content, was determined using standard AOAC methods. Moisture content was estimated by oven-drying, ash by incineration in a muffle furnace, fat by Soxhlet extraction, protein by the Kjeldahl method and fibre using standard enzymatic-gravimetric procedures. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference. Total energy value was calculated using Atwater conversion factors (AOAC, 2019).
 
Micronutrient analysis
 
Mineral content, including calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium and potassium, was determined using appropriate spectrophotometric and flame photometric methods after wet digestion of samples. Vitamin A and vitamin C contents were analyzed using standard colorimetric methods. Results below the detectable limit were reported as BDL (AOAC, 2019).
 
Determination of total phenolic content and antioxidant activity
 
Total phenolic content (TPC) was estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu method and expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g. Antioxidant activity was assessed using a free radical scavenging assay and results were expressed as percentage inhibition (AOAC, 2019).
 
Statistical analysis      
                                                                                                    
All analyses were carried out in triplicate and results were expressed as mean values. Descriptive statistical analysis was employed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test to interpret variations among the selected wild vegetables.

The nutritional composition and antioxidant profile of the selected wild edible vegetables from Aurangabad, Maharashtra (Table 1) demonstrate considerable variability among species, reflecting differences in plant morphology, edible parts, growing conditions and physiological maturity. Overall, the findings confirm that wild vegetables are nutritionally dense and can contribute meaningfully to dietary diversity and micronutrient security, as reported in earlier studies on underutilized plant foods.


 
Moisture and ash content
 
From Fig 1 moisture content ranged widely from 37.45% in Lutu leaves to above 89% in Kena, Lutu stem and Ambat vel. High moisture levels in leafy and tender stem vegetables are consistent with earlier reports on wild greens from India and Africa, where moisture content typically exceeds 80% (Uusiku et al., 2010; Gupta et al., 2015). The comparatively low moisture in Lutu leaves may be attributed to higher structural carbohydrates and dry matter accumulation, which has also been reported for mature or sun-exposed leafy vegetables (Sundriyal and Sundriyal, 2004).


       
According to Fig 2 Lutu leaves shows the highest energy value (248.75 %). Ash content, an indicator of total mineral matter, was highest in Lutu leaves (3.60%) and Kanchnar (3.12%). Similar ash values (2.5-4.0%) have been reported for wild leafy vegetables such as Amaranthus, Chenopodium and Cassia species, highlighting their mineral richness compared to cultivated greens (Kumar et al., 2013; Orech et al., 2007). The elevated ash content in these samples reflects their potential role as mineral supplements in traditional diets.


 
Macronutrient composition
 
Protein content varied markedly, with Kanchnar (9.40%) and Lutu leaves (7.46%) exhibiting substantially higher levels than Kena and Lutu stem. These values are comparable to or higher than those reported for commonly consumed leafy vegetables such as spinach and fenugreek (3-5%) (Gopalan et al., 2019). Previous studies on wild edible plants have similarly documented higher protein content in flower buds and young leaves, attributed to active metabolic processes and nitrogen accumulation (Sarma et al., 2016).
       
Dietary fibre was notably high in Kanchnar (9.17%), aligning with earlier reports that wild vegetables often contain higher fibre than cultivated varieties due to lower breeding for tenderness (Kala and Prakash, 2014). High fibre intake is associated with improved gastrointestinal health and reduced risk of metabolic disorders, reinforcing the functional significance of these plants.
       
Lutu leaves recorded exceptionally high carbohydrate content (46.56%) and total energy value (248.75 kcal/100 g), which is higher than most leafy vegetables but comparable to certain wild tuberous or thick-leaved plants reported by Longvah et al. (2017). This suggests that Lutu leaves can serve as an energy-dense food source, particularly during periods of food scarcity.
 
Mineral profile
 
Mineral analysis revealed as per Fig 3 Kena as an outstanding source of calcium (466.35 mg/100 g), iron (36.90 mg/100 g) and magnesium (92.85 mg/100 g). These values exceed those reported for many cultivated leafy vegetables and are comparable to calcium-rich wild greens documented by Gupta et al., (2015) and Longvah et al., (2017). High iron content in Kena highlights its potential role in addressing iron deficiency anemia, especially among vulnerable populations.


       
Kanchnar and Lutu leaves also contributed appreciable amounts of iron and calcium, consistent with previous findings that wild leafy vegetables often contain higher mineral concentrations due to deeper root systems and minimal soil nutrient depletion (Flyman and Afolayan, 2006). From Fig 4 Sodium and potassium levels were particularly high in Lutu stem and Kanchnar, similar to observations by Uusiku et al., (2010), who reported that wild vegetables can significantly contribute to electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation when consumed in moderation (Rani and Punia, 2017).


 
Vitamin content
 
Vitamin A content was remarkably high in Kena (2615.10 µg/100 g) according to Fig 5, exceeding values reported for many conventional green leafy vegetables and comparable to vitamin A–rich wild plants reported by Odhav et al., (2007). Such high provitamin A levels underscore the importance of wild vegetables in combating vitamin A deficiency, a major public health concern in developing countries.


       
From Fig 6 Vitamin C content ranged from 4.46 to 23.23 mg/100 g, with Kanchnar exhibiting the highest concentration. Similar ranges have been reported for wild edible plants by Gupta et al., (2015) and Orech et al., (2007), who noted that vitamin C levels vary widely depending on species and environmental stress, often being higher in wild plants than cultivated ones.


 
Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity
 
Total phenolic content was exceptionally high in Lutu leaves, Lutu stem and Ambat vel, with values exceeding 900 mg GAE/100 g in some samples (Fig 7). These levels are considerably higher than those reported for many cultivated vegetables and are consistent with findings that wild plants accumulate higher phenolic compounds as a defense mechanism against environmental stress (Kaur and Kapoor, 2002; Li et al., 2014, Prasoona et al., 2023).


       
According to Fig 8, antioxidant activity followed a similar trend, with Kena and Lutu leaves showing strong free radical scavenging potential. Previous studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between phenolic content and antioxidant activity in wild vegetables, supporting the functional role of phenolics in oxidative stress reduction (Dembitsky et al., 2011). The high antioxidant activity observed in these vegetables suggests their potential in preventing chronic diseases associated with oxidative damage.


 
Statistical analysis
 
The results of one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test showed significant differences (p < 0.001) among the five wild vegetables for all the nutritional, mineral, vitamin, phenolic and antioxidant parameters studied. Kena was found to contain the highest amounts of calcium, iron, magnesium and vitamin A compared to the other vegetables. Lutu (Leaves) recorded the highest carbohydrate content, energy value and phenolic compounds, along with strong antioxidant activity. Kanchnar/Koilar (White) was observed to be a better source of protein, fibre and vitamin C than the other vegetables included in the study. The differences observed among the vegetables indicate that each species possesses a distinct nutritional profile. These findings suggest that wild vegetables can serve as valuable sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds and may contribute to improving dietary diversity and nutritional security in local communities.

The present study conclusively demonstrates that the selected wild edible vegetables collected from Aurangabad district, Maharashtra-namely Kena, Kanchnar/Koilar, Lutu (leaves and stem) and Ambat vel are nutritionally rich and possess substantial antioxidant potential. The marked variability observed in proximate composition reflects species-specific characteristics, with Kanchnar and Lutu leaves emerging as good sources of protein and dietary fibre, while Lutu leaves also provided high energy due to elevated carbohydrate content. Kena stood out for its exceptional mineral richness, particularly calcium, iron and magnesium, along with remarkably high vitamin A content, highlighting its potential role in combating micronutrient deficiencies such as anemia and vitamin A deficiency. Furthermore, the high total phenolic content and strong antioxidant activity observed in Lutu leaves, Lutu stem and Ambat vel underscore their functional food value and possible protective role against oxidative stress–related chronic diseases. Overall, these findings validate traditional dietary practices and emphasize the importance of conserving and promoting underutilized wild vegetables as affordable, nutrient-dense food resources capable of enhancing dietary diversity, nutritional security and public health, especially among rural and tribal populations.

The present study was supported by the Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Research and Training Institute (Mahajyoti) Fellowship under the state Government of Maharashtra, India.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.