Kodo millet, scientifically known as
Paspalum scrobiculatum, is an ancient grain that has gained recognition for its exceptional nutritional and nutraceutical properties. This resilient crop, native to the Indian subcontinent, has been cultivated for over 3000 years, thriving in diverse climatic conditions and serving as a staple food for many communities. Kodo millet is often referred to as a “nutri-cereal” due to its rich profile of essential nutrients, including vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber, making it a valuable addition to modern diets
(Singh et al., 2017). The nutritional composition of Kodo millet is impressive; it is high in protein (approximately 10.6 g per 100 g), fiber (10.2 g) and essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron. Its low glycemic index makes it particularly beneficial for individuals managing diabetes, as it helps regulate blood sugar levels while providing sustained energy
(Devi et al., 2014). Furthermore, the presence of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and antioxidants contributes to its health-promoting properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and cardio protective effects.
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of Kodo millet in addressing various health issues prevalent in contemporary societies. It’s high antioxidant capacity aids in combating oxidative stress and may reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer. Additionally, Kodo millet’s role in weight management and gut health is supported by its high fiber content, which promotes satiety and supports digestive health by fostering beneficial gut microbiota
(Bhat et al., 2018, Singh et al., 2023). As interest in functional foods continues to grow, Kodo millet stands out not only for its nutritional benefits but also for its versatility in culinary applications
(Saxena et al., 2018). It can be incorporated into a variety of dishes, from traditional recipes to modern health-focused meals. This review aims to explore the comprehensive nutritional profile of Kodo millet, examine its bioactive compounds and associated health benefits and discuss its potential role in promoting overall wellness in diverse populations. By synthesizing current research findings, this paper seeks to provide insights into how Kodo millet can be effectively utilized as a functional food to enhance dietary quality and support health outcomes.
Nutritional composition
Millets are recognized for their rich nutritional profile, encompassing valuable nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, minerals and vitamins
(Singh et al., 2023). The protein content in millets is comparable to that of other cereals, making them an excellent source of plant-based protein. However, millets generally contain lower amounts of carbohydrates compared to more commonly consumed grains. In terms of fat content, certain types of millets such as common millet (
Panicum miliaceum), foxtail millet (
Setaria italica) and barnyard millet (
Echinochloa spp.) exhibit relatively high levels of fat. This elevated fat content can contribute to reduced storage stability, necessitating careful handling and storage practices to maintain quality. Additionally, millets are characterized by their high ash content indicating a significant presence of inorganic matter
(Saxena et al., 2018). This mineral-rich composition enhances their nutritional value and contributes to various health benefits
(Chandrakar et al., 2023). Overall, the diverse nutrient profile of millets positions them as a beneficial addition to diets, promoting health and well-being. The comparative nutritional value of millets over cereals especially for the presence of protein, carbohydrate, fat, crude fiber and minerals per 100 gm each was illustrated in Table 1.
Carbohydrates
Kodo millet (
Paspalum scrobiculatum) is notable for its carbohydrate content, which varies slightly across different studies
(Nithiyanantham et al., 2019). The carbohydrate content in Kodo millet typically ranges from 63.62 g to 75.45 g per 100 grams, depending on the specific variety and processing methods used. For example, one study reported a carbohydrate content of 74.71 g in dehulled Kodo millet. Other sources indicate values around 66.6 g per 100 grams. In terms of net carbohydrates, one serving of Manna Kodo Millet (approximately 60 grams) contains about 40.6 g of net carbs, which accounts for dietary fiber. Kodo millet is also rich in dietary fiber, contributing to its overall carbohydrate content
(Upadhyaya et al., 2009). The fiber content is reported to be around 8.5 g to 10.2 g, which plays a crucial role in digestive health and glycemic control. The high carbohydrate content, combined with a low glycemic index, makes Kodo millet an excellent choice for providing sustained energy while also being beneficial for blood sugar management
(Yadav et al., 2020). This nutritional profile supports its growing popularity as a healthful alternative to more common grains like rice and wheat.
Proteins
Kodo millet (
Paspalum scrobiculatum) is recognized for its relatively high protein content compared to other grains. The protein content in Kodo millet generally ranges from 8.3 g to 11 g per 100 grams
(Sharma et al., 2018). Kodo millet is particularly rich in essential amino acids, including lysine, threonine, isoleucine and valine, which are crucial for various bodily functions and overall health. The protein in Kodo millet is considered easily digestible, making it a suitable option for those seeking plant-based protein sources. The combination of high protein content and the presence of essential amino acids makes Kodo millet an excellent dietary choice, particularly for vegetarians and those looking to incorporate more nutritional grains into their reflections. Its nutritive profile supports various health benefits, including muscle maintenance and overall well-being.
Lipids
Kodo millet has a relatively low fat content, generally ranging from 1.4% to 4.2% per 100 grams
(Chandrakar et al., 2023). The crude fat content in Kodo millet is generally reported to be around 2.82% to 4.2%. Different studies have shown slight variations in this value, with some sources indicating a lower fat content of approximately 1.4%.
The majority of the fatty acids present in Kodo millet are unsaturated, including oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid, which contribute to its health benefits. Unsaturated fatty acids are known for their positive effects on heart health and cholesterol levels. Despite its low fat content, the presence of beneficial unsaturated fatty acids makes Kodo millet a nutritious choice. It can be included in diets aimed at maintaining healthy lipid profiles and overall well-being.
Vitamins
Kodo millet is a nutrient-dense grain that is particularly rich in various vitamins, contributing to its status as a healthful food option. It contains approximately 2.0 mg of Vitamin B3 (niacin) per 100 grams, which plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and supports the health of the skin, digestive system and nervous system. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is important for protein metabolism and cognitive development
(Vijayabharathi et al., 2015). It is a good source of vitamin B6, although specific quantitative values may vary across sources. Kodo millet is also rich in folic acid (Vitamin B9), essential for DNA synthesis and repair, making it particularly important during periods of rapid growth such as pregnancy and infancy. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) is vital for carbohydrate metabolism and nerve function, with Kodo millet providing about 0.18 mg per 100 grams. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) is present in smaller amounts, vitamin B5 aids in the synthesis of coenzyme A, which is important for fatty acid metabolism. Kodo millet contains approximately 0.28 mg per 100 grams. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is involved in energy production and cellular function, although it’s content in Kodo millet is relatively low at about 0.09 mg per 100 grams
(Nirubana et al., 2021).
Overall, the presence of these vitamins enhances the nutritional value of Kodo millet, making it an excellent addition to a balanced diet
(Ravi et al., 2004). Its rich vitamin profile supports various bodily functions and contributes to overall health and well-being (Table 2).
Minerals
• Kodo millet (
Paspalum scrobiculatum) is rich in various essential minerals, contributing to its nutritional profile and health benefits
(Nithiyanantham et al., 2019).
•
Calcium: Important for bone health, Kodo millet provides a moderate amount of calcium.
•
Iron: Kodo millet is beneficial for preventing anemia due to its iron content, which varies significantly across different sources.
•
Phosphorus: This mineral plays a vital role in energy metabolism and bone health.
•
Magnesium: Contributes to multitudinous biochemical reactions in the body and supports cardiovascular health
(Liang et al., 2010, Tian et al., 2015).
•
Zinc: Essential for vulnerable function and cellular metabolism (
Badau et al., 2005).
•
Potassium: Important for maintaining fluid balance and proper muscle function.
The mineral content in Kodo millet highlights its eventuality as a nutritious food source that can support various bodily functions and overall health
(Chandrakar et al., 2023). Its combination of minerals makes it an excellent addition to a balanced diet, particularly for those seeking to enhance their intake of essential nutrients (Table 3).
Fibers
Kodo millet (
Paspalum scrobiculatum) is recognized for its significant dietary fiber content, which contributes to its health benefits and nutritional value
(Sharma et al., 2018). Total dietary fiber content in Kodo millet typically ranges from 9% to 14.3% per 100 grams, depending on the source and processing methods. 9.0 g to 12.98 g of total dietary fiber per 100 grams is present in unpolished Kodo millet
(Malleshi et al., 1993).
Types of fiber
Kodo millet contains both soluble and insoluble dietary fibers:
•
Soluble fiber: This type helps in regulating blood sugar levels and lowering cholesterol.
•
Insoluble fiber: It aids in digestive health by promoting regular bowel movements and preventing constipation
(Ludwig et al., 1999).
Phenolic compounds
Kodo millet is rich in phenolic compounds
(Srivastava et al., 2017), which are known for their antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. Kodo millet primarily contains hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids
(Chandrasekara et al., 2012).Important examples are as follows:
•
Ferulic acid: Known for its antioxidant effects and potential to reduce inflammation.
•
Caffeic acid: Exhibits strong antioxidant properties and may help protect against oxidative stress.
•
Coumaric acid: Contributes to the overall antioxidant capacity of Kodo millet.
Flavonoids
Kodo millet also contains various flavonoids, which are known for their health benefits, including:
•
Taxifolin: Identified as a major flavonoid in Kodo millet extracts, it has been shown to possess significant antioxidant activity
(Goudar et al., 2018).
• Other flavonoids may include catechin and derivations that contribute to the grain’s health-promoting properties.
Bioavailability of nutrients from millets
The bioavailability of nutrients in Kodo millet (
Paspalum scrobiculatum) is influenced by various factors, including its nutritional composition, presence of anti-nutrients and processing methods. Kodo millet is rich in essential nutrients, including high in B-complex vitamins such as niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6) and folic acid. Kodo millets contains significant amounts of calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and zinc, which are crucial for various bodily functions
(Sharma et al., 2018).
Anti-nutrients
Kodo millet contains anti-nutrients such as phytates and tannins, which can bind to minerals like calcium and zinc, reducing their bioavailability. These compounds may inhibit the absorption of essential nutrients during digestion.
Processing techniques
To enhance the bioavailability of nutrients in Kodo millet, various processing methods can be employed:
•
Soaking: This technique helps reduce levels of phytates and tannins, thereby increasing the availability of minerals and amino acids
(Hadimani et al., 1993).
•
Cooking: Cooking can further decrease anti-nutritional factors and improve the digestibility of proteins and starches.
•
Fermentation: This method has been shown to significantly reduce anti-nutritional compounds while enhancing nutrient bsorption
(Hadimani et al., 1995, Pandiella et al., 2001).
Impact on nutrient absorption
Processing techniques not only improve the digestibility of Kodo millet but also enhance the bioavailability of its nutrients. For instance:
• The reduction of phytate levels through soaking or fermentation increases the solubility and absorption of minerals such as calcium, iron and zinc
(Chiranthika et al., 2017).
• The high dietary fiber content aids in regulating glucose absorption and cholesterol levels but might also affect the overall nutrient absorption if not processed adequately.
Processing effects
The content of phenolic compounds can be influenced by different processing methods
(Saxena et al., 2018). Some of the processing methods are as follows:
•
Roasting: This method can enhance the total phenolic content (TPC) by promoting the release of bound phenolics during heat treatment.
•
Parboiling: This process has been shown to increase the free and bound polyphenol content in millets, enhancing their nutritional profile
(Gotcheva et al., 2001).
Kodo millet and its health effects
Kodo millet is a nutrient-rich grain that offers numerous health benefits. Kodo millet is gaining popularity due to its gluten-free nature and high nutritional profile, making it an excellent alternative to traditional grains like rice and wheat. Kodo millet offers several health benefits are as follows:
•
Supports heart health
Kodo millet is rich in antioxidants and dietary fiber, which help lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease. Its magnesium and potassium content also support cardiovascular health by regulating blood pressure (
Zhang et al., 2020).
•
Aids in diabetes management
The low glycemic index of Kodo millet makes it a suitable food for individuals with diabetes
(Liu et al., 2021). It helps stabilize blood sugar levels due to its low sugar content and high fiber, which slows down glucose absorption
(Hegde et al., 2005).
•
Promotes digestive health
The high fiber content in Kodo millet aids digestion by preventing constipation and promoting gut health. It helps maintain a healthy balance of gut bacteria, which is essential for overall digestive functions
(Kumar et al., 2017).
•
Assists in weight management
Due to its high fiber content, Kodo millet can promote a feeling of fullness, which may help reduce overall calorie intake. This makes it beneficial for those looking to manage their weight effectively.
•
Enhances bone health
Rich in calcium and phosphorus, Kodo millet contributes to bone density and strength, making it a valuable addition to the diet for maintaining skeletal health.
•
Cholesterol reduction
The soluble fibers may aid in lowering cholesterol levels, contributing to cardiovascular health.
•
Good for kidney health
Kodo millet has low potassium levels and high fiber content, making it suitable for individuals with kidney issues. It helps reduce uric acid levels in the body and supports idney functions.
•
Provides antioxidant benefits
The antioxidants present in Kodo millet help combat oxidative stress, potentially reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease
(Sharma et al., 2017, Hegde et al., 2005).
•
Anti-inflammatory effects
The antioxidants present can help mitigate inflammation, further contributing to the prevention of various health issues.
Potential side effects
While Kodo millet has many health benefits, some individuals may experience side effects are as follows:
•
Digestive issues: Excessive consumption may lead to bloating or gas due to its high fiber content.
•
Allergic reactions: Some people may have allergies related to millets or specific compounds within them.
