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Full Research Article

Exploring Red Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) Leaf Polysaccharides as Functional Barriers against Oil Absorption in Fried Chips

M
Mayur Hemade1
M
Mansi Takawane1
M
Mohak Vaishnav1
M
Mohd Shams Ansari1
M
Manthan More1
P
Prerana Shere1,*
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2467-3125
1School of Food Technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University, Pune-412 201, Maharashtra, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: High oil absorption during deep frying significantly increases the caloric content of snack foods and is a major nutritional concern. Edible coatings based on plant polysaccharides have emerged as promising strategies to reduce oil uptake during frying. This study investigates the extraction of polysaccharides from red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves and evaluates their application as edible coatings for reducing oil uptake in fried potato chips.

Methods: Fresh leaves (2 kg) were subjected to washing, cold-water pretreatment (4°C, 5 min), ethanol washing (95%, 30 min) and hot-water extraction at 85°C for 2 h under mildly acidic conditions (pH 5.0-5.5). The extract was filtered and polysaccharides were recovered through ethanol precipitation. Approximately 8 g of polysaccharide powder was obtained, corresponding to an extraction yield of 0.4%. Coating solutions (0.2-1.0% w/v) were prepared using glycerol as a plasticiser and tween 80 as a surfactant. Potato wafers were coated, cross-linked using calcium chloride solution, pre-dried and deep-fried at 170°C. Oil uptake was quantified using soxhlet extraction.

Result: Results indicated that the 0.8% coating reduced oil absorption from 6.45% in the control to 5.48%, representing approximately 15% reduction. Texture analysis showed that coated samples maintained acceptable crispness with an average fracture force of 2,292 g. Colour analysis revealed moderate changes in L*, a* and b* values attributable to natural pigments present in red amaranth leaves. These findings demonstrate the potential of red amaranth polysaccharides as natural edible coatings for producing healthier fried snack foods.

INTRODUCTION

Fried foods are consumed in large quantities because of their attractive appearance, distinctive Flavors and crunchy textures. However, one of the main challenges associated with fried foods is their high oil content, which increases calorie intake and could lead to several health problems. Thus, the development of techniques to lower oil uptake in fried foods while preserving product quality has received more attention (Dehghannya and Ngadi, 2023; Kurek et al., 2017). Oil absorption during deep fat frying is a complex process involving heat transfer, structural changes and moisture loss. Rapid water loss leads to pore formation and studies have reported that a substantial proportion of oil uptake occurs during the post- frying cooling stage when capillary pressure drives surface oil into these pores (Dehghannya and Ngadi, 2023). Therefore, the internal structure and surface properties of food play a critical role in oil absorption. Edible coatings have emerged as an effective method for reducing oil uptake. Similar coating- based strategies have also been reported to increase the postharvest quality and shelf life of fruit products (Hazarika et al., 2023). These coatings form a thin protective layer on the food surface, limiting moisture loss and oil transfer during frying. Amaranth-derived components have been effectively used in edible film development, showing good structural stability and film-forming qualities (Khalili et al., 2025). However, most research has focused on amaranth grains, leaving the potential of red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves underexplored. Studies have shown that amaranth-derived components can enhance the structural and functional properties of biodegradable films (de Oliveira  et al., 2025) but limited work has focused on extracting film-forming polymers from leaves for reducing oil absorption during frying. Evaluation under actual frying conditions is essential, as many studies focus only on film characterization. It is important to assess whether coatings can effectively reduce oil uptake in real food systems, as highlighted by studies on coated fried potato products (Salehi et al., 2024). Therefore, the present study was undertaken to develop a novel edible coating based on polysaccharides extracted from red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves and to evaluate its potential for reducing oil uptake in fried foods. The extracted polymer was formulated using glycerol and tween 80, followed by calcium chloride cross-linking and applied to potato slices to assess its effectiveness under frying conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
 
Fresh Amaranthus tricolor leaves were procured from a local agricultural market in Pune, Maharashtra, India. Ethanol (95%, food grade, Zenith, food grade, Rankem-glycerol, Tween-80, citric acid and calcium chloride were used. All chemicals used were of food-grade quality from department of food process and product technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University, Pune for a period of 2 years (2025 and 2026).
 
Extraction of polysaccharide
 
Fresh leaves (2 kg) were washed, chopped (0.5 cm) and subjected to cold water pretreatment (4°C, 5 min) followed by ethanol treatment (30 min) for pigment removal. Hot-water extraction was conducted at 85°C for 2 h (pH 5.0-5.5), followed by filtration and ethanol precipitation (1:3 v/v) to obtain polysaccharides. The precipitate was washed (80-95% ethanol), dried at 40°C and powdered. The extraction yield was 0.43% (w/w) based on fresh weight. The hot-water extraction and ethanol precipitation protocol was adopted with slight modifications from (Raghav et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2019). Polymer solutions (0.2-1.0% w/v) were prepared at 60-70°C with glycerol (30% w/w) and tween-80 (0.05% w/v), followed by hydration at 4°C for 24 h, with slight modifications from (Albert and Mittal, 2002; Mellema, 2003; Kocira et al., 2021).
 
Analytical methods
 
Proximate composition of fresh leaves and extracted polysaccharide powder was determined using (AOAC, 2016) standard methods for moisture (AOAC 925.09), ash (AOAC 923.03), crude protein (AOAC 981.10), crude fibre (AOAC 978.10) and total saccharides by the phenol-sulphuric acid colorimetric method (Dubois et al., 1956).
 
Mineral content
 
Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Cu was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Perkin elmer analyst 400, USA) following AOAC 975.03, phosphorus by the vanado-molybdate colorimetric method (AOAC 965.17), vitamin B1 by the fluorometric thiochrome method (AOAC 942.23) and vitamin C by DCPIP titration (AOAC 967.21) (AOAC, 2016b).

Colour analysis
 
Surface colour of all samples was measured using a Hunter colorimeter (ColorFlex EZ, Hunter Lab, USA) and expressed as CIE L*a*b* values, calibrated against a standard white tile before each measurement session (Enaru et al., 2021; Sarker and Oba, 2019).
 
Texture profile analysis
 
The instrumental texture of the fried chips was evaluated using a texture analyzer (TA.XT Plus, Stable Micro Systems, UK) equipped with a spherical probe at a test speed of 1.0 mm/s. Prior to analysis, the fried chips were equilibrated to room temperature under controlled conditions. Samples of uniform size and free from visible structural defects were selected for texture measurement. The analysis was performed in compression mode. The probe was positioned perpendicular to the surface of each chip and a trigger force of 5 g (0.049 N) was applied to initiate the measurement. The pre-test, test and post-test speeds were maintained at 1.0 mm/s, with a compression distance of 5 mm, corresponding approximately to 20-30% compression strain, depending on the sample thickness. All instrumental parameters were kept constant for all treatments to ensure comparability among samples.
 
Statistical analysis
 
 All experimental data were expressed as mean±standard deviation (SD) of three independent replicates (n = 3). Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine significant differences among treatment means, followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. Differences were considered statistically significant at p≤0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate composition of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder
 
The proximate composition of red amaranth leaves in both fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder is depicted in Table 1. The moisture content of fresh red amaranth leaves was found to be 88.25%, which is characteristic of leafy plants due to their high cellular water content (Fig 1). High moisture levels are known to contribute to rapid microbial spoilage and reduced shelf life. Following drying, the moisture content decreased significantly to 2.38%, indicating the effectiveness of the drying process in water remova (Fig 2). This substantial reduction enhances product stability and shelf life by limiting microbial growth and enzymatic activity, findings consistent with those reported by Mondal et al., (2019) for dried leafy plant materials. The ash content increased from 3.10% in fresh leaves to 10.80% in dried samples. This increase is attributed to the concentration effect resulting from moisture removal rather than an actual increase in mineral content. As water is eliminated during drying, the relative proportion of mineral constituents becomes more concentrated. Protein content showed a slight increase from 8.81% in fresh leaves 10.18% in dried samples, (Puliani and Bhavana, 2025a, 2025) which can similarly be explained by the concentration of nutrients following water removal. (Sarker et al., 2020).

Table 1: Proximate composition of fresh and extracted polysaccharide.



Fig 1: Fresh red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolour) leaves.



Fig 2: Extracted polysaccharide powder.


 
Nutritional composition of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide
 
The mineral and vitamin composition of fresh red amaranth leaves and their extracted polysaccharide powder (Table 2). Among the major minerals, calcium (% w/w) decreased significantly (p≤0.05) from 2.44% to 0.07% following extraction. This reduction is attributed to leaching losses during aqueous processing, as calcium exists in partially water-soluble forms within plant tissues and thermal treatment may further disrupt cell wall structures, facilitating mineral migration into the extraction medium (Suffo et al., 2016). Similarly, magnesium (% w/w) and potassium (% w/w) decreased significantly (p≤0.05) from 2.08% to 1.34% and from 2.55% to 0.30%, respectively. Potassium, being a highly mobile intracellular ion, is particularly susceptible to diffusion into aqueous processing media (Mondal et al., 2019). Sodium (% w/w) also declined significantly (p≤0.05) from 0.81% to 0.10%, further confirming solubility-driven leaching during extraction. In contrast, phosphorus (% w/w) showed only a non-significant reduction from 0.68% to 0.55%, indicating relatively higher stability, possibly due to its occurrence in bound forms such as phospholipids and phytates that are less susceptible to leaching (Suffo et al., 2016). Overall, extraction significantly altered the mineral and vitamin profile, with water-soluble and heat-sensitive nutrients declining due to leaching and thermal degradation, while certain components were relatively concentrated. The retained bioactive compounds support incorporation into polysaccharide-based edible coatings to enhance the nutritional value of the final product.

Table 2: Mineral and vitamin composition of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide.


 
Colour evaluation of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder
 
The colour characteristics of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder were evaluated and the results are presented in Table 3. The L* value showed a slight decrease from 38.95 in fresh leaves to 37.41 in the extracted polysaccharide powder. This reduction indicates a minor loss in brightness following attributable to pigment degradation and the formation of browning compounds during thermal processing, including maillard reactions and caramelisation (Enaru et al., 2021). The a* value for fresh leaves recorded a high positive a* value of 17.69, confirming the presence of red betacyanin pigments such as amaranthine  consistent with the high redness values (a* up to 17.68) reported for red A. tricolor genotypes by (Sarker and Oba, 2019). The b* value, representing yellowness (positive values) or blueness (negative values), increased markedly from 4.07 in fresh leaves to 18.17 in the extracted polysaccharide powder; this increase in yellowness is associated with pigment transformation processes, including the degradation of chlorophyll and anthocyanins into yellowish chalcone derivatives and the formation of non-enzymatic browning products during drying a phenomenon well documented during thermal processing of anthocyanin-containing plant materials (Tan et al., 2022). Similar observations were recorded by Sarker and Oba (2019) for selected red and green Amaranthus leafy vegetable genotypes.

Table 3: Colour analysis of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide powder.


 
Colour evaluation of coated fried potato chips
 
The colour characteristics of potato chips coated with varying concentrations of red amaranth polysaccharide were evaluated using the CIE Lab* colour system (Table 4). The L* value, representing lightness, showed a decreasing trend with increasing coating concentration. Coated samples displayed lower L* values ranging from 66.44 to 81.79, reflecting a reduction in lightness. This decrease is attributed to the formation of a polysaccharide film on the chip surface, which modifies heat and mass transfer during frying and promotes non-enzymatic browning, leading to darker products. This observation is in agreement with (Salehi et al., 2021) who reported similar effects of surface polysaccharide coatings on lightness values in fried potato strips. The a* value shifted from a negative value in the control sample (-2.24) to positive values (0.72-4.66) in coated samples, indicating a transition from slight greenness to increased redness. This shift may be attributed to enhanced Maillard reaction product formation under the modified frying conditions created by the coating layer, as well as the contribution of plant-derived pigments in the red amaranth polysaccharide extract to the development of reddish-brown compounds during heating. The b* value, representing yellowness, increased significantly in coated samples (27.25-37.83) compared to the control (22.38), indicating enhanced browning and pigment transformation during frying. These changes in colour characteristics highlight the ability of the red amaranth polysaccharide coating to modify surface chemistry and browning kinetics, which, alongside its oil-reduction functionality, may be leveraged as a value-added attribute in fried food product development (Bouaziz et al., 2016).

Table 4: Colour values of fried potato chips coated with different concentrations of polysaccharide.


 
Texture analysis of fried potato chips
 
Texture, specifically crispness, is a primary quality determinant of fried potato chips and directly governs consumer acceptability. In the present study, the texture of coated chips was evaluated in terms of fracturability (g-force), representing the mechanical force required to fracture the chip structure. The results are presented in Table 5. The control sample exhibited fracturability values ranging from 1,091.4 g to 1,598.6 g across replicates, which are characteristic of conventionally fried potato chips. These values reflect the brittle structure formed because of rapid moisture evaporation and pore development during frying, which is closely associated with controlled porosity and low final moisture content (Lumanlan et al., 2020). The application of red amaranth polysaccharide coating resulted in a marked increase in fracturability across all concentrations. At 0.2% concentration, fracturability increased significantly to a range of 1,784.1-4,087.0 g, indicating that even low coating levels contribute to surface film formation, reinforcing chip structure and reducing excessive structural collapse during frying (Chandla et al., 2025). Overall, these results are consistent with previous reports demonstrating the ability of hydrocolloid coatings to enhance the mechanical strength and textural quality of fried food products (Cazón  et al., 2017) (Salehi, 2020; Salehi et al., 2021). Similar barrier forming mechanisms have also been documented for polysaccharides based costing applied to fresh cut and minimally processed vegetables, supporting their broader role in improving the products structure and quality (Jyothsna and Nair, 2022).

Table 5: Fracturability (g-force) of fried potato chips coated with different concentrations of red amaranth polysaccharide.


 
Oil uptake analysis
 
The oil absorption characteristics of control and coated potato chip samples were evaluated using Soxhlet extraction and the results are presented in Table 6. The control sample exhibited an oil uptake of 6.45%, which is typical of uncoated fried products and is primarily governed by the water-oil replacement mechanism, wherein evaporated water is replaced by oil through capillary pathways formed within the porous structure during frying. At a coating concentration of 0.6%, a slight increase in oil uptake (6.61%) was observed relative to the control. This suggests that at this concentration, the polysaccharide layer is insufficiently thick or continuous to provide an effective barrier against capillary oil ingress during frying. A substantial and statistically relevant reduction in oil uptake was observed at the 0.8% coating level, where oil absorption decreased to 5.48%, representing an approximate 15% reduction compared to the uncoated control. This reduction is attributed to the formation of a uniform and continuous polysaccharide film at this concentration, which acts as an effective barrier by limiting both moisture loss and oil penetration through a reduction in pore formation and capillary flow. This observation is in agreement with (Al-Asmar  et al., 2018) who reported significant oil reduction in cellulose-and chitosan-coated fried products associated with continuous film formation and restricted mass transfer. Frying oil quality itself can also influence oil uptake behaviour, as demonstrated for mustard oil across repeated deep-fat frying cycles (Nayak et al., 2016).

Table 6: Effect of polysaccharide coating concentration on oil absorption of fried potato chips.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrated effective utilization of red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves polysaccharides as edible coatings for fried potato chips. The extraction yield of 0.4% confirms its potential as a source of functional biopolymers. Among the tested concentrations, 0.8% coating showed optimal performance, achieving about 15% reduction in oil uptake due to the formation of a semi-permeable barrier that limits moisture loss and oil absorption during frying. Overall, red amaranth polysaccharide coatings offer a natural and effective approach to reduce oil absorption while preserving product quality, with strong potential for healthier fried food applications. Further research can be focused on improving the yield of the polysaccharide from amaranth leave. The detailed polysaccharide characterization in terms of types, molecular weight, structure needs to be evaluated. The potential effect of polysaccharide application on sensory profile can be studied at consumer level.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by the Department of Food Process and Product Technology, School of Food Technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University for providing the necessary facilities, laboratory infrastructure and academic support to carry out the research work successfully.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Exploring Red Amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) Leaf Polysaccharides as Functional Barriers against Oil Absorption in Fried Chips

    M
    Mayur Hemade1
    M
    Mansi Takawane1
    M
    Mohak Vaishnav1
    M
    Mohd Shams Ansari1
    M
    Manthan More1
    P
    Prerana Shere1,*
    https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2467-3125
    1School of Food Technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University, Pune-412 201, Maharashtra, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: High oil absorption during deep frying significantly increases the caloric content of snack foods and is a major nutritional concern. Edible coatings based on plant polysaccharides have emerged as promising strategies to reduce oil uptake during frying. This study investigates the extraction of polysaccharides from red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves and evaluates their application as edible coatings for reducing oil uptake in fried potato chips.

    Methods: Fresh leaves (2 kg) were subjected to washing, cold-water pretreatment (4°C, 5 min), ethanol washing (95%, 30 min) and hot-water extraction at 85°C for 2 h under mildly acidic conditions (pH 5.0-5.5). The extract was filtered and polysaccharides were recovered through ethanol precipitation. Approximately 8 g of polysaccharide powder was obtained, corresponding to an extraction yield of 0.4%. Coating solutions (0.2-1.0% w/v) were prepared using glycerol as a plasticiser and tween 80 as a surfactant. Potato wafers were coated, cross-linked using calcium chloride solution, pre-dried and deep-fried at 170°C. Oil uptake was quantified using soxhlet extraction.

    Result: Results indicated that the 0.8% coating reduced oil absorption from 6.45% in the control to 5.48%, representing approximately 15% reduction. Texture analysis showed that coated samples maintained acceptable crispness with an average fracture force of 2,292 g. Colour analysis revealed moderate changes in L*, a* and b* values attributable to natural pigments present in red amaranth leaves. These findings demonstrate the potential of red amaranth polysaccharides as natural edible coatings for producing healthier fried snack foods.

    INTRODUCTION

    Fried foods are consumed in large quantities because of their attractive appearance, distinctive Flavors and crunchy textures. However, one of the main challenges associated with fried foods is their high oil content, which increases calorie intake and could lead to several health problems. Thus, the development of techniques to lower oil uptake in fried foods while preserving product quality has received more attention (Dehghannya and Ngadi, 2023; Kurek et al., 2017). Oil absorption during deep fat frying is a complex process involving heat transfer, structural changes and moisture loss. Rapid water loss leads to pore formation and studies have reported that a substantial proportion of oil uptake occurs during the post- frying cooling stage when capillary pressure drives surface oil into these pores (Dehghannya and Ngadi, 2023). Therefore, the internal structure and surface properties of food play a critical role in oil absorption. Edible coatings have emerged as an effective method for reducing oil uptake. Similar coating- based strategies have also been reported to increase the postharvest quality and shelf life of fruit products (Hazarika et al., 2023). These coatings form a thin protective layer on the food surface, limiting moisture loss and oil transfer during frying. Amaranth-derived components have been effectively used in edible film development, showing good structural stability and film-forming qualities (Khalili et al., 2025). However, most research has focused on amaranth grains, leaving the potential of red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves underexplored. Studies have shown that amaranth-derived components can enhance the structural and functional properties of biodegradable films (de Oliveira  et al., 2025) but limited work has focused on extracting film-forming polymers from leaves for reducing oil absorption during frying. Evaluation under actual frying conditions is essential, as many studies focus only on film characterization. It is important to assess whether coatings can effectively reduce oil uptake in real food systems, as highlighted by studies on coated fried potato products (Salehi et al., 2024). Therefore, the present study was undertaken to develop a novel edible coating based on polysaccharides extracted from red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves and to evaluate its potential for reducing oil uptake in fried foods. The extracted polymer was formulated using glycerol and tween 80, followed by calcium chloride cross-linking and applied to potato slices to assess its effectiveness under frying conditions.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Materials
     
    Fresh Amaranthus tricolor leaves were procured from a local agricultural market in Pune, Maharashtra, India. Ethanol (95%, food grade, Zenith, food grade, Rankem-glycerol, Tween-80, citric acid and calcium chloride were used. All chemicals used were of food-grade quality from department of food process and product technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University, Pune for a period of 2 years (2025 and 2026).
     
    Extraction of polysaccharide
     
    Fresh leaves (2 kg) were washed, chopped (0.5 cm) and subjected to cold water pretreatment (4°C, 5 min) followed by ethanol treatment (30 min) for pigment removal. Hot-water extraction was conducted at 85°C for 2 h (pH 5.0-5.5), followed by filtration and ethanol precipitation (1:3 v/v) to obtain polysaccharides. The precipitate was washed (80-95% ethanol), dried at 40°C and powdered. The extraction yield was 0.43% (w/w) based on fresh weight. The hot-water extraction and ethanol precipitation protocol was adopted with slight modifications from (Raghav et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2019). Polymer solutions (0.2-1.0% w/v) were prepared at 60-70°C with glycerol (30% w/w) and tween-80 (0.05% w/v), followed by hydration at 4°C for 24 h, with slight modifications from (Albert and Mittal, 2002; Mellema, 2003; Kocira et al., 2021).
     
    Analytical methods
     
    Proximate composition of fresh leaves and extracted polysaccharide powder was determined using (AOAC, 2016) standard methods for moisture (AOAC 925.09), ash (AOAC 923.03), crude protein (AOAC 981.10), crude fibre (AOAC 978.10) and total saccharides by the phenol-sulphuric acid colorimetric method (Dubois et al., 1956).
     
    Mineral content
     
    Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Cu was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Perkin elmer analyst 400, USA) following AOAC 975.03, phosphorus by the vanado-molybdate colorimetric method (AOAC 965.17), vitamin B1 by the fluorometric thiochrome method (AOAC 942.23) and vitamin C by DCPIP titration (AOAC 967.21) (AOAC, 2016b).

    Colour analysis
     
    Surface colour of all samples was measured using a Hunter colorimeter (ColorFlex EZ, Hunter Lab, USA) and expressed as CIE L*a*b* values, calibrated against a standard white tile before each measurement session (Enaru et al., 2021; Sarker and Oba, 2019).
     
    Texture profile analysis
     
    The instrumental texture of the fried chips was evaluated using a texture analyzer (TA.XT Plus, Stable Micro Systems, UK) equipped with a spherical probe at a test speed of 1.0 mm/s. Prior to analysis, the fried chips were equilibrated to room temperature under controlled conditions. Samples of uniform size and free from visible structural defects were selected for texture measurement. The analysis was performed in compression mode. The probe was positioned perpendicular to the surface of each chip and a trigger force of 5 g (0.049 N) was applied to initiate the measurement. The pre-test, test and post-test speeds were maintained at 1.0 mm/s, with a compression distance of 5 mm, corresponding approximately to 20-30% compression strain, depending on the sample thickness. All instrumental parameters were kept constant for all treatments to ensure comparability among samples.
     
    Statistical analysis
     
     All experimental data were expressed as mean±standard deviation (SD) of three independent replicates (n = 3). Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine significant differences among treatment means, followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. Differences were considered statistically significant at p≤0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Proximate composition of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder
     
    The proximate composition of red amaranth leaves in both fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder is depicted in Table 1. The moisture content of fresh red amaranth leaves was found to be 88.25%, which is characteristic of leafy plants due to their high cellular water content (Fig 1). High moisture levels are known to contribute to rapid microbial spoilage and reduced shelf life. Following drying, the moisture content decreased significantly to 2.38%, indicating the effectiveness of the drying process in water remova (Fig 2). This substantial reduction enhances product stability and shelf life by limiting microbial growth and enzymatic activity, findings consistent with those reported by Mondal et al., (2019) for dried leafy plant materials. The ash content increased from 3.10% in fresh leaves to 10.80% in dried samples. This increase is attributed to the concentration effect resulting from moisture removal rather than an actual increase in mineral content. As water is eliminated during drying, the relative proportion of mineral constituents becomes more concentrated. Protein content showed a slight increase from 8.81% in fresh leaves 10.18% in dried samples, (Puliani and Bhavana, 2025a, 2025) which can similarly be explained by the concentration of nutrients following water removal. (Sarker et al., 2020).

    Table 1: Proximate composition of fresh and extracted polysaccharide.



    Fig 1: Fresh red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolour) leaves.



    Fig 2: Extracted polysaccharide powder.


     
    Nutritional composition of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide
     
    The mineral and vitamin composition of fresh red amaranth leaves and their extracted polysaccharide powder (Table 2). Among the major minerals, calcium (% w/w) decreased significantly (p≤0.05) from 2.44% to 0.07% following extraction. This reduction is attributed to leaching losses during aqueous processing, as calcium exists in partially water-soluble forms within plant tissues and thermal treatment may further disrupt cell wall structures, facilitating mineral migration into the extraction medium (Suffo et al., 2016). Similarly, magnesium (% w/w) and potassium (% w/w) decreased significantly (p≤0.05) from 2.08% to 1.34% and from 2.55% to 0.30%, respectively. Potassium, being a highly mobile intracellular ion, is particularly susceptible to diffusion into aqueous processing media (Mondal et al., 2019). Sodium (% w/w) also declined significantly (p≤0.05) from 0.81% to 0.10%, further confirming solubility-driven leaching during extraction. In contrast, phosphorus (% w/w) showed only a non-significant reduction from 0.68% to 0.55%, indicating relatively higher stability, possibly due to its occurrence in bound forms such as phospholipids and phytates that are less susceptible to leaching (Suffo et al., 2016). Overall, extraction significantly altered the mineral and vitamin profile, with water-soluble and heat-sensitive nutrients declining due to leaching and thermal degradation, while certain components were relatively concentrated. The retained bioactive compounds support incorporation into polysaccharide-based edible coatings to enhance the nutritional value of the final product.

    Table 2: Mineral and vitamin composition of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide.


     
    Colour evaluation of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder
     
    The colour characteristics of fresh and extracted polysaccharide powder were evaluated and the results are presented in Table 3. The L* value showed a slight decrease from 38.95 in fresh leaves to 37.41 in the extracted polysaccharide powder. This reduction indicates a minor loss in brightness following attributable to pigment degradation and the formation of browning compounds during thermal processing, including maillard reactions and caramelisation (Enaru et al., 2021). The a* value for fresh leaves recorded a high positive a* value of 17.69, confirming the presence of red betacyanin pigments such as amaranthine  consistent with the high redness values (a* up to 17.68) reported for red A. tricolor genotypes by (Sarker and Oba, 2019). The b* value, representing yellowness (positive values) or blueness (negative values), increased markedly from 4.07 in fresh leaves to 18.17 in the extracted polysaccharide powder; this increase in yellowness is associated with pigment transformation processes, including the degradation of chlorophyll and anthocyanins into yellowish chalcone derivatives and the formation of non-enzymatic browning products during drying a phenomenon well documented during thermal processing of anthocyanin-containing plant materials (Tan et al., 2022). Similar observations were recorded by Sarker and Oba (2019) for selected red and green Amaranthus leafy vegetable genotypes.

    Table 3: Colour analysis of fresh amaranth leaves and extracted polysaccharide powder.


     
    Colour evaluation of coated fried potato chips
     
    The colour characteristics of potato chips coated with varying concentrations of red amaranth polysaccharide were evaluated using the CIE Lab* colour system (Table 4). The L* value, representing lightness, showed a decreasing trend with increasing coating concentration. Coated samples displayed lower L* values ranging from 66.44 to 81.79, reflecting a reduction in lightness. This decrease is attributed to the formation of a polysaccharide film on the chip surface, which modifies heat and mass transfer during frying and promotes non-enzymatic browning, leading to darker products. This observation is in agreement with (Salehi et al., 2021) who reported similar effects of surface polysaccharide coatings on lightness values in fried potato strips. The a* value shifted from a negative value in the control sample (-2.24) to positive values (0.72-4.66) in coated samples, indicating a transition from slight greenness to increased redness. This shift may be attributed to enhanced Maillard reaction product formation under the modified frying conditions created by the coating layer, as well as the contribution of plant-derived pigments in the red amaranth polysaccharide extract to the development of reddish-brown compounds during heating. The b* value, representing yellowness, increased significantly in coated samples (27.25-37.83) compared to the control (22.38), indicating enhanced browning and pigment transformation during frying. These changes in colour characteristics highlight the ability of the red amaranth polysaccharide coating to modify surface chemistry and browning kinetics, which, alongside its oil-reduction functionality, may be leveraged as a value-added attribute in fried food product development (Bouaziz et al., 2016).

    Table 4: Colour values of fried potato chips coated with different concentrations of polysaccharide.


     
    Texture analysis of fried potato chips
     
    Texture, specifically crispness, is a primary quality determinant of fried potato chips and directly governs consumer acceptability. In the present study, the texture of coated chips was evaluated in terms of fracturability (g-force), representing the mechanical force required to fracture the chip structure. The results are presented in Table 5. The control sample exhibited fracturability values ranging from 1,091.4 g to 1,598.6 g across replicates, which are characteristic of conventionally fried potato chips. These values reflect the brittle structure formed because of rapid moisture evaporation and pore development during frying, which is closely associated with controlled porosity and low final moisture content (Lumanlan et al., 2020). The application of red amaranth polysaccharide coating resulted in a marked increase in fracturability across all concentrations. At 0.2% concentration, fracturability increased significantly to a range of 1,784.1-4,087.0 g, indicating that even low coating levels contribute to surface film formation, reinforcing chip structure and reducing excessive structural collapse during frying (Chandla et al., 2025). Overall, these results are consistent with previous reports demonstrating the ability of hydrocolloid coatings to enhance the mechanical strength and textural quality of fried food products (Cazón  et al., 2017) (Salehi, 2020; Salehi et al., 2021). Similar barrier forming mechanisms have also been documented for polysaccharides based costing applied to fresh cut and minimally processed vegetables, supporting their broader role in improving the products structure and quality (Jyothsna and Nair, 2022).

    Table 5: Fracturability (g-force) of fried potato chips coated with different concentrations of red amaranth polysaccharide.


     
    Oil uptake analysis
     
    The oil absorption characteristics of control and coated potato chip samples were evaluated using Soxhlet extraction and the results are presented in Table 6. The control sample exhibited an oil uptake of 6.45%, which is typical of uncoated fried products and is primarily governed by the water-oil replacement mechanism, wherein evaporated water is replaced by oil through capillary pathways formed within the porous structure during frying. At a coating concentration of 0.6%, a slight increase in oil uptake (6.61%) was observed relative to the control. This suggests that at this concentration, the polysaccharide layer is insufficiently thick or continuous to provide an effective barrier against capillary oil ingress during frying. A substantial and statistically relevant reduction in oil uptake was observed at the 0.8% coating level, where oil absorption decreased to 5.48%, representing an approximate 15% reduction compared to the uncoated control. This reduction is attributed to the formation of a uniform and continuous polysaccharide film at this concentration, which acts as an effective barrier by limiting both moisture loss and oil penetration through a reduction in pore formation and capillary flow. This observation is in agreement with (Al-Asmar  et al., 2018) who reported significant oil reduction in cellulose-and chitosan-coated fried products associated with continuous film formation and restricted mass transfer. Frying oil quality itself can also influence oil uptake behaviour, as demonstrated for mustard oil across repeated deep-fat frying cycles (Nayak et al., 2016).

    Table 6: Effect of polysaccharide coating concentration on oil absorption of fried potato chips.

    CONCLUSION

    The study demonstrated effective utilization of red amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves polysaccharides as edible coatings for fried potato chips. The extraction yield of 0.4% confirms its potential as a source of functional biopolymers. Among the tested concentrations, 0.8% coating showed optimal performance, achieving about 15% reduction in oil uptake due to the formation of a semi-permeable barrier that limits moisture loss and oil absorption during frying. Overall, red amaranth polysaccharide coatings offer a natural and effective approach to reduce oil absorption while preserving product quality, with strong potential for healthier fried food applications. Further research can be focused on improving the yield of the polysaccharide from amaranth leave. The detailed polysaccharide characterization in terms of types, molecular weight, structure needs to be evaluated. The potential effect of polysaccharide application on sensory profile can be studied at consumer level.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by the Department of Food Process and Product Technology, School of Food Technology, MIT Art, Design and Technology University for providing the necessary facilities, laboratory infrastructure and academic support to carry out the research work successfully.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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