The livestock sector is among the most resilient and growth-oriented components of Indian agriculture, contributing nearly 30 per cent to agricultural Gross Value Added and supporting rural livelihoods (Government of India, 2026). However, the livestock population, exceeding 535 million, has expanded faster than the feed and fodder base, resulting in persistent deficits of about 11 per cent in green fodder, 23 per cent in dry fodder and nearly 29 per cent in concentrate feed (DAHD, 2022). These imbalances directly constrain livestock productivity, increase feed costs and reduce farm profitability.
       
Evidence indicates that fodder scarcity is driven less by limited area and more by low productivity linked to weak seed systems (Burkart and Mwendia, 2024; Choudhary et al., 2025). Limited adoption of improved varieties, low seed replacement rates (SRR), poor varietal replacement and heavy reliance on informal seed sources have restricted productivity gains, particularly in eastern India (Banerjee et al., 2025). Weak seed delivery mechanisms and inadequate institutional support further exacerbate these constraints (Government of India, 2021; Government of India, 2022). 
       
Fodder crops play complementary roles in livestock-based farming systems and hence, help ensure feed security. Despite these benefits, the area under fodder crops remains limited due to weak institutional prioritization and underdeveloped seed systems (Jadhav et al., 2025). Seed quality is a critical determinant of crop productivity. The National Seed Policy underscores the importance of replacing farm-saved seed with certified seed to realize the yield potential of improved varieties (Government of India, 2002). Although SRR has improved for major food grains, it remains persistently low for fodder crops because of unorganized markets, limited private sector participation and weak farmer incentives (Agnotra et al., 2021).
       
The problem is particularly acute in Uttar Pradesh, which accounts for nearly 12-13 per cent of India’s livestock population (PIB, 2023). Eastern Uttar Pradesh is characterized by high livestock density, small and fragmented holdings and widespread fodder shortages (Gupta et al., 2014). Despite favourable agro-climatic conditions, farmers predominantly depend on informal seed sources, leading to poor varietal purity, yield instability and low productivity. High seed costs, uncertain returns from seed production, lack of assured markets and limited awareness of improved varieties further discourage adoption of certified seed, while inadequate public-sector seed multiplication and weak regulatory oversight constrain supply (Choudhary et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2025).
       
Consequently, a structural disconnect persists between fodder seed production, farmers’ seed replacement behaviour and productivity outcomes. The limited availability of region-specific empirical evidence on the economics of seed production and its relationship with SRR and institutional constraints represents a critical research gap, particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kumar et al., 2025; ICAR-IGFRI, 2021). Hence, this study was undertaken to examine the economics of fodder and green manure seed production, assess seed replacement behaviour and identify institutional constraints affecting seed system performance in eastern Uttar Pradesh, with a view to strengthening fodder seed systems and enhancing livestock-based livelihoods.

The study employed a combination of primary field survey and secondary data analysis to examine the economic performance and seed replacement behaviour in fodder crops seed production. Primary data were collected during the agricultural years 2022-2025 through personal interviews using a pre-tested and structured schedule as part of the research work carried out at Shri Durga Ji P.G. College, Chandeshwar, Azamgarh, U.P.
       
A multistage sampling procedure was employed for the selection of the study units. The Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh was selected due to low productivity, fodder yield gaps and seed system constraints (Verma et al., 2019; ICRISAT, 2022; Government of Uttar Pradesh, 2022). In the first stage, five districts namely Ayodhya, Azamgarh, Varanasi, Jaunpur and Ballia were purposively selected from the Eastern Plain Zone. From each of these five districts, one development block was selected randomly, constituting the second stage of sampling. In the third stage, a random selection of six villages was made from each selected block, resulting in a total of 30 villages. Finally, for the fourth stage, 20 farmers were randomly selected from each village, ensuring that each selected farmer had cultivated at least one fodder crop during the preceding year. The final sample comprised 600 farmers. A village-level listing identified eligible cultivators prior to selection. Farmers were stratified proportionately across landholding categories such as small and marginal (<1 ha), medium (1-2 ha) and large (>2 ha) to ensure representation across farm sizes and enable comparative analysis.
 
Concepts, analytical tools and techniques
 
The economic evaluation employed standard farm management cost concepts, disaggregating costs into variable (seed, manure, fertilizers, labour, irrigation, working capital interest) and fixed components (land rent, depreciation, fixed capital interest). Further, the economic analysis was carried out using the cost concepts recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), wherein Cost A1 included all paid-out expenses such as seed, fertilizers, hired labour, irrigation and other input costs, while Cost A2 comprised Cost A1 plus rent paid for leased-in land. Gross returns were computed using prevailing post-harvest market prices, with net returns derived residually. Economic efficiency was quantified through returns per rupee expended and benefit-cost ratios. Seed Replacement Rate (SRR), the proportion of area sown with certified seed, was calculated following Verma and Sidhu (2009). Farmers’ perceptions regarding seed quality, price, availability and institutional support were measured using a five-point Likert scale, with weighted mean scores for ranking constraints.

Cost of major fodder seed production (Sorghum, pearl millet, maize and berseem)
 
The cost structure of fodder seed production varied across crops, but operational costs formed the major share in all cases. For fodder sorghum (jowar), the average total cost of cultivation was ₹ 23,179.84 per ha, of which operational costs accounted for 70.63 per cent and fixed costs for 29.37 per cent (Table 1). Seed cost (15.92%), hired labour (11.55%), FYM and fertilizers (11.12%) and machinery labour (10.27%) were the major operational components. Family labour contributed 8.81 per cent, while irrigation expenses were relatively low (3.07%), indicating the crop’s low water requirement.


       
In bajra seed production, the average total cost was ₹ 18,720 per ha (Table 1), which was lower than that of other fodder seed crops. Operational costs constituted 66.75 per cent of the total cost, while fixed costs accounted for 33.25 per cent. Major cost components included hired labour (13.10%), FYM and fertilizers (11.56%), machinery labour (10.49%) and seed cost (10.77%). Irrigation costs remained low (4.05%), reflecting bajra’s adaptability to low-water conditions.
       
For maize seed production, the average total cost was ₹ 24,792 per ha (Table 1), with operational costs accounting for 73.45 per cent and fixed costs 26.55 per cent. Seed cost (15.56%) constituted the largest share, followed by FYM and fertilizers (13.11%), hired labour (11.36%) and machinery labour (10.38%). Irrigation expenses were moderate (4.28%), indicating relatively higher water requirements than jowar and bajra.
       
Berseem seed production recorded the highest cost of cultivation among the studied crops, with an average total cost of ₹ 29,056 per ha (Table 1). Operational costs accounted for 76.12 per cent of total expenditure, while fixed costs contributed 23.88 per cent. FYM and fertilizers (14.76%), seed cost (14.61%), machinery labour (12.23%) and hired labour (10.82%) were the major cost components. Irrigation charges were relatively higher (5.53%), reflecting the crop’s higher water requirement.
       
Table 1 further indicated that Cost A1, representing paid-out variable cash costs per hectare (excluding family labour), amounted to ₹ 16,372.26 for fodder sorghum, ₹ 12,495.61 for pearl millet, ₹ 18,210.45 for maize and ₹ 22,116.65 for berseem. Cost A2, defined as Cost A1 plus rent paid for leased-in land, remained identical to Cost A1 across all crops, as no rent was reported. This suggests that the sampled farmers operated entirely on owned land without tenancy arrangements. While paid-out costs capture operational cash expenditures, the imputed rental value of owned land (₹ 5,000/ha) was accounted for separately under fixed costs, ensuring a more comprehensive estimation of total production costs.
 
Returns and profitability
 
The returns from fodder seed production differed significantly among the crops studied. In the case of jowar seed production, the average seed yield was 10 quintals per ha and the selling price was ₹ 3,200 per quintal, resulting in a gross income of ₹ 32,000 per ha (Table 2). After deducting the cost of cultivation, the net income was ₹ 8,820.16 per ha with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.38. The cost of production was estimated at ₹ 2,317.98 per quintal.
       
For bajra seed production, the average yield was 15 quintals per ha, which was higher than other fodder crops studied. At a selling price of ₹ 2,200 per quintal, the gross income reached ₹  33,000 per ha (Table 2). The net income was ₹ 14,280 per ha with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.76, while the cost of production was ₹ 1,248 per quintal. These results indicate that bajra seed production offers higher economic returns due to its higher productivity and relatively lower production costs.


       
In maize seed production, the average seed yield was 14 quintals per ha with a selling price of ₹ 2,300 per quintal, resulting in a gross income of ₹ 32,200 per ha (Table 2). The net income was estimated at ₹ 7,408 per ha and the benefit-cost ratio was 1.30. The cost of production per quintal was ₹ 1,770.88, indicating moderate profitability compared to other crops.
       
Berseem seed production generated the highest gross income due to its higher market price. The average yield was 3 quintals per ha and the selling price was ₹ 13,000 per quintal, resulting in a gross income of ₹ 39,000 per ha (Table 2). After deducting cultivation costs, the net income was ₹ 9,944 per ha with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.34. However, the cost of production per quintal was relatively high at ₹ 9,685.50 due to higher input costs.
 
Seed replacement rates and adoption patterns of fodder crops
 
As shown in Table 3, SRR in fodder crops varies considerably across both crop types and farm sizes. Maize and sorghum exhibit relatively high SRR among marginal and small farmers (77.54% and 74.50%, respectively), which decline in large farms (61.78% and 66.53%). This pattern suggests increased seed recycling as farm size expands. Bajra records the lowest overall SRR (50.50%), indicating persistent dependence on informal seed systems across all landholding categories. In contrast, berseem shows a substantially higher SRR in large farms (83.27%) compared to marginal and medium farms, reflecting the greater use of certified seed for high-value, multi-cut fodder production. Oats and lucerne are cultivated exclusively with formal seed in large farms (100% SRR), underscoring their specialised production requirements and limited scope for seed recycling. Cowpea demonstrates moderate SRR (49.6%), with adoption largely confined to medium and large farms (Table 3).


 
Constraints in access to formal seed of fodder crops
 
Seed cost and economic constraints
 
Table 4 revealed that economic factors emerged as primary deterrents to formal seed adoption among fodder growers, consistent with Choudhary et al., (2025). The constraint “high cost of certified seed supplied by the private sector” recorded a mean score of 4.16 on a five-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree), indicated strong severity. This finding, corroborating Kumar et al., (2025), reflected price inelasticity and suggested private-sector pricing misaligned with farmers’ purchasing capacity for low-return fodder crops. The perception that fodder seed production was not remunerative (mean 3.31) further indicated weak economic incentives for seed multiplication, creating a self-reinforcing low-adoption cycle documented by Banerjee et al., (2025). These findings revealed a structural paradox: certified seed prices were prohibitively high for users, yet returns remain insufficient for producers, implying value distribution inefficiencies rather than high production costs alone (Agnotra et al., 2021). These results indicate the need for dual-sided policy interventions, combining seed price rationalization with assured procurement mechanisms.


 
Seed availability and supply constraints
 
Beyond economic barriers, supply-side constraints further impeded adoption as presented in Table 4. Constraints pertaining to timeliness, quantity and quality of seed supply from public institutions were rated moderate to high, indicating systemic operational weaknesses (Jadhav et al., 2025). Delayed seed availability (mean 3.21) and inadequate quantities (mean 3.16) pointed to logistical bottlenecks undermining farmer confidence. More critically, non-availability during peak sowing (mean 3.37) and poor seed quality (mean 3.63) highlighted synchronization failures between production, certification and demand, aligning with the findings of  ICAR-IGFRI, 2015. Lower severity for Napier grass constraints (mean 2.79) suggested crop-specific availability issues. Findings underscored need for decentralized seed hubs aligned with local cropping calendars (Burkart and Mwendia, 2024).
 
Market and institutional constraints
 
Market and institutional constraints constituted the most severe barriers, dominating the hierarchy (Table 4). “Lack of institutional support for multiplication and distribution” recorded the highest mean (4.34), exposing absent enabling architecture (Gupta et al., 2014). This was compounded by market uncertainty in seed sale (mean 3.98) and counterfeit seed prevalence (mean 3.86), revealing a weakly regulated ecosystem with information asymmetry and enforcement deficits (Verma et al., 2019). These conditions undermined farmer confidence and discouraged participation in the formal seed system. Findings highlighted need for dedicated fodder seed sub-mission incorporating traceability mechanisms, seller licensing and formal market linkages (Government of India, 2002).
 
Farmer knowledge and capacity constraints
 
Resource and awareness constraints were rated moderate (Table 4), indicating adoption barriers extend beyond availability. High opportunity cost of land and labour (mean 3.23) reflected rational prioritization of income-generating crops over fodder (Banerjee et al., 2025; Singh et al., 2021). Limited awareness of improved varieties (mean 3.13) and small landholdings constraining adoption (mean 3.21) suggested inadequate knowledge dissemination (Choudhary et al., 2025). These constraints highlighted interaction between economic risk perception and informational gaps. Findings suggested result-based extension approaches with demonstration-linked incentives (Kumar et al., 2025).
 
Other constraints
 
Among residual constraints as presented in Table 4, grazing by stray animals emerged as major concern (mean 3.94), highlighting governance issues affecting seed crop survival (Gupta et al., 2014). Conversely, lack of irrigation (mean 2.68) and seed storage issues (mean 3.06) were less severe, suggesting infrastructural constraints secondary to institutional failures.

The study establishes that fodder seed production in eastern Uttar Pradesh is predominantly driven by operational expenditures, constituting 66-76 per cent of total cultivation costs, with seed, labour and fertilizers as the principal cost components. Berseem incurred the highest establishment cost (₹29,056 ha^-1), attributable to intensive input requirements for legume seed production, whereas pearl millet demonstrated superior economic efficiency with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.76, reflecting its lower input intensity and higher productivity. Despite these differential economics, seed replacement rates remain suboptimal across crops (50-77 per cent), with larger farms exhibiting greater reliance on informal seed systems-a paradoxical finding that underscores systemic rather than economic barriers to adoption.
       
Critically, institutional and market failures emerge as the predominant constraints to formal seed adoption, substantially outweighing technical or knowledge-related barriers. Lack of institutional support for seed multiplication (mean score 4.34), prohibitive certified seed costs (4.16), market uncertainty (3.98) and counterfeit seed prevalence (3.86) represent the most severe deterrents. These interconnected deficiencies perpetuate a structural disconnect between seed production economics and farmers’ adoption behaviour, explaining the persistence of informal seed systems despite their well-documented limitations in varietal purity and yield stability.
       
Addressing these challenges requires a systems-oriented policy intervention. Establishing decentralized seed production hubs with embedded quality assurance mechanisms, coupled with assured procurement linkages, can simultaneously address availability and market uncertainty. Rationalizing seed prices through targeted, direct-benefit transfers to farmers, while concurrently strengthening public-sector seed multiplication capacity, would enhance both affordability and supply reliability. Convergence with national livestock missions and soil health programmes offers strategic pathways to reduce opportunity costs and improve adoption among smallholders. Without comprehensive institutional strengthening that simultaneously addresses supply-side bottlenecks and demand-side constraints, the productivity potential of improved fodder varieties will remain unrealized. This situation perpetuates chronic feed deficits, constrains livestock productivity and ultimately limits the contribution of the livestock sector to agricultural growth and rural livelihoods in the region.

The present study was supported by the Uttar Pradesh Council of Agricultural Research (UPCAR), Lucknow and conducted at the Department of Agricultural Economics, Shri Durga Ji Post-Graduate College, Chandeshwar, Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.