Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Full Research Article

Physico-chemical, Microbiological and Sensory Properties of Pasta Fortified with Fish Oil Encapsulates

A
A. Jeyakumari1,*
R
R.K. Ketki1
S
S. Visnuvinayagam1
L
L. Narasimha Murthy1
1Fish Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi-682 029, Kerala, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Fish oils are rich sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are known for their numerous health benefits, including cardiovascular protection, brain development and anti-inflammatory activity. Due to these nutritional and therapeutic properties, fish oils are widely utilized in functional foods and nutraceutical formulations. However, their incorporation into food systems is often restricted because of their high susceptibility to oxidative deterioration, which can adversely affect product quality, shelf life and sensory characteristics. To overcome this limitation, oxidative instability can be minimized through the incorporation of antioxidants or by employing encapsulation techniques such as spray drying, which protect the oil from environmental factors including oxygen, light and heat.

Methods: In this study, microencapsulated fish oil were prepared by spray drying. The maltodextrin, sodium caseinate and gum Arabic are used as wall materials for microencapsulation. Moreover, to minimize oxidation of lipids, pomegranate extract was added into fish oil emulsion and spray dried. Fish oil microencapsulates was used for preparation fortified pasta by cold extrusion process. The major ingredients used were wheat flour (as base material), fish oil microencapsulates (3%) and salt (1%). The physic-chemical and sensory properties of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta were analysed up to two months. 

Result: The pomegranate extract had a DPPH activity of 76.76%. The encapsulation efficiency of fish oil encapsulates varied from 94.88% to 95.02%. The physical, chemical and functional properties of fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta was evaluated. The total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values and total plate count (TPC) were within acceptable limit during storage. Based on the sensory analysis microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained pomegranate peel extract was found to be superior to microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained bulk fish oil added one. 

INTRODUCTION

Fish oils are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and are great interest because of their effectiveness in prevention and treatment of several diseases (Patted et al., 2024). Due to its health benefits, it can be included in foods as a functional ingredient. The main problem of food enrichment with omega-3 rich fish oil is the unpleasant fishy flavour of fish oil, which has a negative influence on food acceptability (Kolanowski, 2005). However, undesirable off-flavour may be avoided by using high-quality fish oil at moderate addition levels, especially when protected in microencapsulated form and stabilised by the addition of antioxidants (Jeyakumari et al., 2018; Binsi et al., 2017). Encapsulation process is widely used for protecting active ingredients from heat and other environmental factors during processing thereby minimizing the access of undesirable flavours, enhancing stability and controlled release of active ingredients (Nisa et al., 2025; Anggraini et al., 2025). Spray-drying has been widely applied for the encapsulation of phenolic compounds derived from pomegranate peel, utilizing a range of carrier systems (Nisa et al., 2025). Very few studies have been reported on fortified snack food with fish oil (Agnikumar et al., 2015; Jeyakumari et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2021). Pasta is a widely consumed ready to cook product all over the world. It is an appealing product to the consumer due to its taste, texture, appearance, different shapes and sizes. The demand for ready to eat or ready to cook food products are gaining interest among the consumers with convenience preparation. Moreover, there is an increasing awareness towards the consumption of nutritious and healthy foods. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have numerous human health benefits. Enrichment of foods with omega-3 PUFA is regarded as a way of increasing dietary intake of these fatty acids in order to reduce levels of risk of various diseases (Kolanowski, 2005). Pasta is also considered to be a good energy source due to its complex carbohydrate content and low GI. Moreover, its convenience and palatability makes it a popular dish (Vito et al., 2009). Pasta is considered to be a potential vehicle for fortification by different nutraceuticals such as vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids. (Jacobsen et al., 2008). Traditionally, pasta is prepared from durum wheat semolina, although refined wheat flour is also commonly used in certain varieties. While semolina-based pasta serves as a good source of carbohydrates and provides moderate protein content, it is generally considered limited in functional and nutritional properties when compared to fortified or value-added pasta products enriched with dietary fiber, proteins, or bioactive compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Karpagavalli and Amutha, 2015; Sinha and Sharma, 2023). Conventional pasta is mainly rich in carbohydrates and provides moderate amounts of protein, but it contains very low levels of essential fatty acids. Incorporation of encapsulated fish oil enhances the nutritional profile of pasta by supplying bioactive lipids, particularly omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA, which are associated with several health benefits in human (Kolanowski, 2005; Patted et al., 2024). Hence, the present study aimed to develop fish oil-encapsulated fortified pasta and evaluate its physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Raw materials
 
The fish oil (Seacod, Universal Medicare, Mumbai, India) was procured from local market at Mumbai.Sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and Gum Arabic were purchased from Himedia, India. The pomegranate extract purchased from Veda oils Pvt. Ltd, Cochin.
 
Methods
 
Preparation of fish oil microencapsulates by spray drying
 
For the preparation of fish oil emulsion, wall materials consisting of sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and gum Arabic were dissolved in distilled water under continuous stirring until complete hydration was achieved. Subsequently, fish oil (1%, w/v) as the core material and pomegranate extract (0.5%, w/v) as a natural antioxidant were added to the hydrated wall material solution. The emulsion was prepared using a core-to-wall material ratio of 1:4. Accordingly, for every 1 g of fish oil used, a total of 4 g of wall material was incorporated, comprising sodium caseinate (2 g), maltodextrin (1 g) and gum Arabic (1 g). The formulation was then homogenized to obtain a stable emulsion prior to encapsulation. To ensure appropriate mixing of the components the emulsion was stirred at 1000 rpm for 30 minutes using magnetic stirrer. Then it was homogenised with a homogeniser at 25,000 rpm for 5minutes. Then it was allowed to settle for 1 hour at room temperature. Control was kept as fish oil emulsion prepared without pomegranate extract. The prepared fish oil emulsion were spray dried (Hemaraj Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India) under the following experimental conditions viz., inlet temperature 180°C, outlet temperature 90°C. The obtained fish oil encapsulates were stored in airtight conditions until further analysis. Since fish oil was used as a functional ingredient in the formulation, the final pasta product is categorized as a non-vegetarian functional food product.
 
Preparation of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
 
Four different formulations were made for preparing the fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta viz. i) Control-contained wheat flour (ii) CE-contained wheat flour, fish oil encapsulates (3%) iii) PE- contained wheat flour, fish oil encapsulates (3%) and pomegranate extract (0.5%) and  iv) FO-contained wheat flour, fish oil (1.0%). Commercially available whole wheat flour made from whole wheat grains was used in the study. Salt was incorporated at 1% in all formulations. Water was added at the required level to obtain a uniform dough consistency and the dough was subjected to a cold extrusion process for pasta preparation. The extruded pasta samples were then dried in a hot air dryer at 60°C for 1 h until the desired moisture level was attained. After drying, the pasta samples were cooled to room temperature, packed in laminated polyethylene pouches and stored under ambient conditions for further analysis.
 
Quality analysis of pomegranate extract and fish oil encapsulates
 
The antioxidant activity of pomegranate extract was determined by DPPH radical scavenging assay according to Nishino et al., (2000). The total phenolic content was measured by the method described by Druckerei (2002). The ferric reducing antioxidant power assay was determined according to Pisoschi et al., (2016).
       
The proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat and ash) of fish oil microencapsulates was determined according to the methods prescribed by AOAC (2023) method. Total nitrogen content was estimated using the micro-Kjeldahl distillation method and the nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.38 was used for protein calculation, as this factor is widely recommended for milk and milk protein products. Since sodium caseinate was used as a wall material in the fish oil microencapsulates, the measured nitrogen content was multiplied by 6.38 to determine the crude protein content. The bulk density and tapped density of fish oil microencapsulates were determined according to Chinta et al., (2009). The Carr index and Hausner ratio of fish oil microencapsulates were calculated as described by Turchiuli et al., (2005). The Hygroscopicity of fish oil microencapsulates was evaluated according to Cai and Corke (2000). The total oil was determined according to Soxhlet method (AOAC, 2023). The surface oil was estimated as per the method followed by Sankarikutty et al., (1988). Encapsulation efficiency was calculated from difference between total oil and surface oil.
 
Quality analysis of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
 
The proximate composition of raw ingredients (whole wheat flour, sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and gum arabic), fish oil microencapsulates and fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta was determined according to AOAC (2023) method. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference method using the formula:
 
Carbohydrate (%) = 100-(Moisture + Protein + Fat + Ash)
 
Calorific value (Energy) was calculated by using the following formula:
 
Energy (kcal/100 g) = (4×Protein) +(9×Fat) + (4×Carbohydrate)
 
Water absorption capacity and Fat absorption capacity of pasta was determined by according to Anderson et al. (1969). The swelling Index was determined as described by Cleary and Brennan (2006). The cooking loss in pasta was determined as described in AACC (2000). The cooking time for pasta was determined according to AACC method (2000). Total plate count (TPC) was determined according to USFDA (2021). Staphylococcus aureus was determined according to USFDA (2016). The yeast and mold in the dried pasta were determined according to USFDA (2021). The sensory evaluation of pasta were carried out using 9 point hedonic scale (Meilgaard et al., 1999). For sensory evaluation, the dried pasta samples were cooked in potable water using a pasta-to-water ratio of 1:10 (w/v). Approximately 25 g of pasta was added to boiling water and cooked until the optimum cooking time was reached, as determined by the disappearance of the white core upon pressing the pasta strand between two glass plates. After cooking, the excess water was drained using a stainless-steel sieve and the cooked pasta was allowed to stand for 1-2 min to remove surface moisture. The samples were then served warm in coded plates to the sensory panellists for evaluation (Petitot et al., 2010). The panellist were asked to score for the sensory attribute such as appearance, color, texture, taste and overall acceptability.
       
The data obtained by various quality analyses were subjected to one-way ANOVA (Analysis of variance). Duncan’s multiple range test was performed at 95% confidence level (P<0.05) by using the SPSS package with a version of 16.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, USA). All the analysis were carried out in triplicate and values were represented as mean±SD.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Antioxidant activity of pomegranate extract
 
The pomegranate extract exhibited a DPPH activity of 76.76%, total phenolic content of 280.50 mg gallic acid equivalent/g of pomegranate extract and FRAP activity of 134.81 µM (FeII)/g. Mo et al., (2022) reported that the antioxidant activity of pomegranate extracts depended on the presence of anthocyanins, gallic acid, ellagic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid and punicalagin.
 
Proximate composition of raw ingredients
 
The commercially available whole wheat flour used in the study contained 10.2% moisture, 11.85% protein, 1.2% fat, 1.6% ash and 75.15% carbohydrate. Sodium caseinate, which served as the major wall material for microencapsulation, exhibited a high protein content of 91.50%, along with 3.2% moisture, 0.95% fat, 3.2% ash and 1.15% carbohydrate. Maltodextrin mainly contributed carbohydrates and contained 3.2% moisture, 0.4% protein, 0.35% fat, 1.20% ash and 94.85% carbohydrate. Gum Arabic contained 6.5% moisture, 2.5% protein, 0.50% fat, 3.5% ash and 87% carbohydrate. The significantly higher protein content observed in the encapsulated pasta samples was mainly attributed to the incorporation of sodium caseinate, a protein-rich encapsulating agent widely used in food microencapsulation due to its excellent emulsifying and film-forming properties (Kolanowski, 2005; Gharsallaoui et al., 2007).
 
Physical and chemical properties of fish oil microencapsulates
 
The fish oil encapsulates had 2.52±0.18 % to 2.63±0.96% moisture, 74.50±0.5% to 76.12±0.20% protein, 11.01 ±0.03% to 11.45±0.34% fat and 0.80±0.32% to 1.42±0.63% ash. The composition changes in fish oil encapsulates depends on wall material, concentration of oil used, method followed for emulsion and encapsulation (Gharsallaoui et al., 2007).  The flow properties of fish oil encapsulates is one of the important property which determines products packaging, storage and application (Fitzpatrick and Ahrne, 2005). In the present study, Hausner ratio of fish oil encapsulates was found to be 1.28-1.32 which indicate the flow properties of fish oil encapsulates are passable (Chinta et al., 2009). The encapsulation efficiency of fish oil encapsulates was found to be 95.02% and 94.88% for control, PEE sample  respectively (Table 1). Carneiro et al., (2013) observed similar results for flaxseed oil encapsulates contained maltodextrin and gum Arabic. The encapsulation efficiency of microcapsulates influenced by the ratio between the core and wall material (Gharsallaoui et al., 2007). Jeyakumari et al., (2018) observed 81.88% encapsulation efficiency for fish oil encapsulates contained oregano extract. In the present study, hygroscopictity of fish oil encapsulates ranged from 5.01% to 5.35% (Table 1). Generally, spray dried powder is easily prone to absorb moisture from the surrounding air. Samborska and Bienkowska (2013) reported that moisture absorption of spray dried powder is influenced by ingredient used and process condition applied.

Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of fish oil microencapsulates.


 
Proximate composition of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
 
The moisture content of the pasta ranged from 10.31% to 11.53%. The moisture content in pasta varied with composition and extrusion conditions (Anbudhasan et al., 2014). The recommended moisture content for dried pasta is below 13%; accordingly, the pasta prepared in the present study met the requirement (Teresa et al., 2009). The results were in agreement with previous reports on pasta enriched with surimi powder and omega-3 fatty acids (Anbudhasan et al., 2014; Asik et al., 2024). The protein content of the fish oil microencapsulate-fortified pasta ranged from 23.81% to 24.31% (Table 2). The control pasta prepared solely from whole wheat flour contained comparatively lower protein levels. The higher protein content observed in CE and PE samples indicated that microencapsulation not only served as a protective system for fish oil but also enhanced the nutritional quality of the pasta by enriching it with additional protein from the encapsulating agents, particularly sodium caseinate. Similar improvements in protein content had been reported in fortified pasta products incorporated with protein-rich ingredients and encapsulated functional compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Dehghan-Shoar et al., 2010). The fat content was 0.48% in the control sample. In contrast, both fish oil encapsulate-and fish oil-incorporated pasta showed higher fat content ranging from 1.02% to 1.41%. The carbohydrate content of the pasta samples varied between 63.29% and 77.01%, while the calorific value ranged from 357.52 to 367.37 kcal/100 g. The comparatively higher energy values observed in the fortified pasta samples could be attributed to the increased fat and protein contents contributed by fish oil and encapsulating materials. Similar observations had been reported in fortified pasta products enriched with functional ingredients and lipid-based bioactive compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Chillo et al., 2008).

Table 2: Proximate composition of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta.


 
Functional properties of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
 
The highest water absorption capacity was found in control (85.34±3.40%). The oil absorption capacity was found to be in the range of 107.47±5.78% to 195.40 ±13.67% (Table 3). The difference in water and oil binding capacity could be related compositions of sample. Swelling index (SI) measures the water absorption by starch/protein during cooking (Alsohaimy et al., 2007). Higher Swelling Index was observed in the all the fortified pasta products compared to control. Sobhy et al., (2020) observed similar results for pasta fortified with chick pea isolate. Cooking loss measure the total soluble substances in the cooked water (Filip and Vidrih, 2015). The cook loss of the sample influenced by the drying temperature and density of the sample (Petitot et al., 2010). The highest value of cooking loss was for control and the least loss was observed in pasta contained bulk oil (FO). Moreover, all the sample had an acceptable limit (9%) of cook loss (AACC, 2000). Mostly the cooking time for all the samples was in the range of 7.5 minutes to 8.5 minutes. The cooking time was the highest for control pasta (8.5 minutes). The reduced cooking time influenced by increase rate water penetration (Padalino et al., 2014).

Table 3: Functional and cooking properties of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


 
Changes in biochemical quality of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
 
Moisture content of the pasta varied from 10.08% to 11.80%. The recommended moisture content in the pasta product is not more than 12.5% (FSSAI, 2011). Accordingly, all the samples had   within the acceptable limit of moisture content during storage. The pH values of all the pasta samples showed a gradual increase during storage. Total volatile base Nitrogen value ranged from 2.5 to 6.2 mg% (Table 4). PV and TBARS value measures the level of oxidation in the product. PV and TBARS value showed a gradual increase during storage. Results showed that PE had a lower PV and TBARS value than other which indicated less oxidation. Rahmani-Manglano et al. (2023) have reported that antioxidants are plays a major role in stabilizing fish oil emulsion and provide protection of lipids during spray drying. 

Table 4: Biochemical quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


 
Sensory quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
 
The sensory evaluation revealed that sensory score for all the pasta received overall acceptability score between 6.8 to 7.8 (Table 5). However, pasta contained fish oil encapsulates and pomegranate extract (PM) rated high score by the panellist with an overall acceptability score of 7.8 and it was comparable with control. Agnikumar et al., (2015) and Jeyakumari et al., (2016) observed higher acceptance for fish oil encapsulates fortified cakes, cookies, respectively than fish oil incorporated cookies. Similarly. Results indicated that incorporation of fish oil encapsulates in the pasta found to have better acceptability without affecting texture and taste.

Table 5: Sensory quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


 
Microbial quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
 
The total plate count in the pasta was varied from 1.45×102 cfu/g to 2.90×102. It has been reported that total plate count in the marketable form of pasta should not be more than <104cfu/g (FSSAI, 2011). Accordingly, all the sample prepared in the study had a total plate count within acceptable limit during storage. Staphylococcus aureus, yeast and mold were absent in all the samples which indicated the pasta were prepared in hygienic condition with controlled drying process.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that fish oil encapsulates prepared in the study had highest encapsulation efficiency of 95.02%.  the pasta prepared in the study met the requirements of moisture and protein content. The chemical and microbiology quality of fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta revealed that total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values and total plate count (TPC) were within acceptable limit during storage. The sensory analysis indicated high score of acceptability for microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained pomegranate peel extract than pasta contained bulk fish oil. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Government of India. This is ICAR-CIFT contribution No.RPP/027/2025.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
This research did not involve any animal/human participation or any material that requires ethical approval. Therefore, informed consent was not required.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES


  1. AACC. (2000). Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereals Chemists. 10th ed. Eagan Press; St. Paul, MN, USA. Methods Number. 66-50: 16-18.

  2. Anderson, R.A., Conway, H.F., Pfeifer, V.F. and Griffin, E.L. (1969).  Gelatinization of corn grits by roll- and extrusion-cooking.  Cereal Science Today. 14: 4-7. doi: 10.1094/CF-14-0004.

  3. Agnikumar, S., Lekshmi, M., Chouksey, M. K., Tripathi, G. and Gudipati, V. (2015). Delivery of omega-3 fatty acids into cake through emulsification of fish oil-in-milk and encapsulation by spray drying with added polymers. Drying  Technology. 33(1): 83-91. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2014. 936309.

  4. Alsohaimy, S.A., Sitohy, M.Z. and El-Masry, R.A. (2007). Isolation and partial characterization of chickpea, lupine and lintil seed proteins. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 3: 123-129.

  5. Anbudhasan, P., Asvini, G., Surendraraj, A., Ramasamy, D. and Sivakumar, T. (2014). Development of functional pasta enriched with omega-3 fatty acids. Fishery Technology. 51: 242-246.

  6. Anggraini, T., Azima, F., Anwar, A., Hervani, D., Suhendra, D., Wisnubroto, M.P., Noflindawati. and Putra, A.R. (2025). Characteristics of sugar palm sap powder (Arenga pinnata Merr.) produced using the foam-mat drying method with various encapsulant agents. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 1-7. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-490.

  7. AOAC.  (2023). Official Methods of Analysis  of the Association of Analytical Chemists. (22nd edn.). Washington, DC.

  8. Asik, I., Chowdhury, S., Nath, S., Dora, K.C., Murmu, P., Roy, S. and Bhattacharya, A. (2024). Standardization of drying temperature and time for surimi powder fortified pasta. Biological Forum-An International Journal. 16(1): 125- 131.

  9. Binsi, P.K., Nayak, N., Sarkar, P.C., Jeyakumari, A., Ashraf, P.M., Ninan, G. and  Ravishankar, C.N. (2017). Structural and oxidative stabilization of spray dried fish oil microencapsulates with gum arabic and sage polyphenols: characterization and release kinetics. Food Chemistry. 219: 158-168. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.160.

  10. Cai, Y.Z. and Corke, H. (2000). Production and properties of spray-dried amaranthus betacyanin pigments. Journal of Food Science. 65(7): 1248-1252. doi: 10.1111/j.1365- 2621.2000.tb09436.x.

  11. Carneiro, H.C.F., Renata V. T., Carlos R.F.G. and Míriam D.H. (2013). Encapsulation efficiency and oxidative stability of flaxseed oil microencapsulated by spray drying using different combinations of wall materials, Journal of Food Engineering. 115(4): 443-451. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.03.033.

  12. Chinta, D.D., Graves, R.A., Pamujula, S., Praetorius, N., Bostanian, L.A. and Mandal, T.K. (2009). Spray-dried chitosanas a direct compression tableting excipient. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 35: 43-48. doi: 10.1080/ 03639040802232947.

  13. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P.M., Protopapa, A. and Del Nobile, M.A. (2008). Influence of the addition of buckwheat flour and durum wheat bran on spaghetti quality. Journal of Cereal Science. 47(2): 144-152. doi: 10.1016/ j.jcs.2007.04.002.

  14. Cleary, L. and Brennan, C. (2006). The influence of a (1→3)(1→4)- β-d-glucan rich fraction from barley on the physico- chemical properties and in vitro reducing sugars release of durum wheat pasta. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 41(8): 910-918. doi: 10.1111/ j.1365-2621.2006.01168.x.

  15. Druckerei, C.H. (2002). European Pharmacopoeia, 4th edn. Beck, Nordlingen, p 187.

  16. Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Allan, K., Hardacre, Charles, S. and Brennan, CS. (2010). The physico-chemical characteristics of extruded snacks enriched with tomato lycopene. Food Chemistry. 123(4): 1117-1122. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem. 2010.05.042.

  17. Filip, S. and Vidrih, R. (2015). Amino acid composition of protein- enriched dried pasta: Is it suitable for a low-carbohydrate diet? Food Technology and Biotechnology. 53: 298-306. doi: 10.17113/ftb.53.03.15.3916.

  18. Fitzpatrick, J.J. and Ahrne, L. (2005). Food powder handling and processing: Industry problems, knowledge barriers and research opportunities. Chemical Engineering and Processing. 44:  209-214. doi: 10.1016/j.cep.2004.03.014.

  19. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, FSSAI. (2011), Food Safety and Standards [Food Safety and Standard (Food Products Standards and Food Additives)] Regulations. https://fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Food_Additives_ Regulations.pdf.

  20. Gharsallaoui, A., Gaelle, R., Odile, C., Andree, V. and Rémi, S. (2007). Applications of spray-drying in microencapsulation of food ingredients: An overview. Food Research International. 40(9): 1107-1121. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres. 2007.07.004.

  21. Jacobsen, C., Let, M.B., Nielsen, N.S. and Meyer, A.S. (2008). Antioxidant strategies for preventing oxidative flavour deterioration of foods enriched with n 3 polyunsaturated lipids: A comparative evaluation. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 19: 76-93. doi: 1016/j.tifs.2007.08.010.

  22. Jeyakumari, A., Janarthanan, G., Chouksey, M.K. and Venkateshwarlu, G. (2016). Effect of fish oil encapsulates incorporation on the physico-chemical and sensory properties of cookies. Journal of Food science and Technology. 53(1): 856-863. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-2051-y.

  23. Jeyakumari, A., Zynudheen, A.A., Parvathy, U. and Binsi, P.K. (2018). Impact of chitosan and oregano extract on the physicochemical properties of microencapsulated fish oil stored at different temperature. International Journal of Food Properties. 21(1): 943-956. doi: 10.1080/ 10942912.2018.1466328.

  24. Karpagavalli, B. and Amutha, S. (2015). Development of pasta products using cereal pulse blends. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 34(3): 213-218. doi: 10.5958/0976-0563.2015.00042.1.

  25. Kolanowski, W. (2005). Omega-3 LC PUFA contents and oxidative stability of encapsulated fish oil dietary supplements. International Journal of Food Properties. 8(3): 473-485. doi: 10.1080/10942910500269826.

  26. Kumar, L.R.G., Sanath Kumar, H., Tejpal, C.S., Anas, K.K., Nayak, B.B., Sarika, K., Greeshma, S.S., Chatterjee, N.S., Mathew, S. and Ravishankar, C.N. (2021). Exploring the physical and quality attributes of muffins incorporated with microencapsulated squalene as a functional food additive. Journal of Food Science Technology. 58(12): 4674-4684. doi: 10.1007/s13197-020-04964-4.

  27. Meilgaard, M., Civille, G.V. and Carr, B.T. (1999). Sensory Evaluation Techniques, 3rd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

  28. Mo, Y., Ma, J., Gao, W., Zhang, L., Li, J. and Zang J. (2022).  Pomegranate peel as a source of bioactive compounds: A mini review on their physiological functions. Frontiers in Nutrition. 9: 887113. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.887113.

  29. Nisa, F.C., Ansori, F.A.Z. and Mubarok, A.Z. (2025). Optimization of spray drying conditions for production of functional goat milk powder enriched with pomegranate peel extract (Punica granatum L.). Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 44(Special Issue): 23-32. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-523.

  30. Nishino, T., Shibahara-Sone, H., Kikuchi-Hayakawa, H. and Lshikawa, F. (2000). Transit of radical scavenging activity of milk products prepared by millard reaction and Lactobacillus casei strain shirota fermentation through the hamster intestine. Journal of Dairy Science. 83: 915-922. doi: 10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(00)74956-1.

  31. Padalino L., Mastromatteo M., Lecce L., Spinelli S., Conte A. and Nobile M.A. (2014). Optimization and characterization of gluten-free spaghetti enriched with chickpea flour. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 7486: 1-11. doi: 10.3109/09637486.2013.879286.

  32. Patted, P.G., Masareddy, R.S., Patil, A.S., Kanabargi, R.R. and Bhat, C.T. (2024). Omega-3 fatty acids: A comprehensive scientific review of their sources, functions and health benefits. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 10: 94. doi: 10.1186/s43094-024-00647-5.

  33. Petitot, M., Boyer, L., Minier, C. and Micard, V. (2010). Fortification of pasta with split pea and faba bean flours: Pasta processing and quality evaluation. Food Research International. 43: 634-641. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres. 2009.07.020.

  34. Pisoschi, A.M., Pop, A., Cimpeanu, C. and Predoi, G. (2016). Antioxidant capacity determination in plants and plant-derived products: A review. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 1-36. 

  35. Rahmani-Manglano, N.E. and García-Moreno, P.J. (2023). Antioxidants location affects the oxidative stability of spray-dried microcapsules loaded with fish oil. Food Bioscience. 56: 2212-4292. doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103219.

  36. Sankarikutty, B., Sreekumar, M.M., Narayann, C.S. and Mathew, A.G. (1988). Studies on microencapsulation of cardamom oil by spray drying technique. Journal of Food Science and Technology.  25: 352-356.

  37. Samborska, K. and Bienkowska, K. (2013). Physicochemical properties of spray dried honey preparations. Zeszyty Problemowe Postêpów Nauk Rolniczych. pp 91-105.

  38. Sinha, R. and Sharma, B. (2023). Development and quality assessment of value-added pasta fortified with cauliflower leaf, carrot and mushroom powder. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR-2096.

  39. Sobhy, A. El Margareta, B., Amira, M.G.D. and Charles, B. (2020). Physicochemical, texture and sensorial evaluation of pasta enriched with chickpea flour and protein isolate. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 65(1): 28-34. doi: 10.1016/j.aoas.2020.05.002.

  40. Teresa, D.P., Roma, G., Antonio, D. and Carla, S. (2009). Study of cooking quality of spaghetti dried through microwaves and comparison with hot air dried pasta. Journal of Food Engineering. 95(3): 453-459. doi: 10.1016/ j.jfoodeng.2009.06.010.

  41. Turchiuli, C., Fuchs, M., Bohin, M., Cuvelier, M. E., Ordonnaud, C., Peyrat- Maillard, M.N. and Dumoulina, E. (2005). Oil encapsulation by spray drying and fluidized bed agglomeration. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 6(1): 29-35. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2004.11.001.

  42. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2021). Aerobic Plate Count. Bacteriological Analytical Manual. http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/ LaboratoryMethods/ucm063346.htm.

  43. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2021). Yeasts, Molds and Mycotoxins. Bacteriological Analytical Manual. https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods- food/bam-chapter-18-yeasts-molds-and-mycotoxins.

  44. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2016). Staphylococcus aureus. Bacteriological Analytical Manual https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods- food/bam-chapter-12-staphylococcus-aureus.

  45. Vito, V., Federico, F., Ylenia, R., Giovanna, I., Emanuele, M. and Maria F.C. (2009).  Evaluation of lipid oxidation in spaghetti pasta enriched with long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids under different storage conditions. Food Chemistry. 114(2): 472-477. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.102.
Published In
Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
17
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Full Research Article

    Physico-chemical, Microbiological and Sensory Properties of Pasta Fortified with Fish Oil Encapsulates

    A
    A. Jeyakumari1,*
    R
    R.K. Ketki1
    S
    S. Visnuvinayagam1
    L
    L. Narasimha Murthy1
    1Fish Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi-682 029, Kerala, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Fish oils are rich sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are known for their numerous health benefits, including cardiovascular protection, brain development and anti-inflammatory activity. Due to these nutritional and therapeutic properties, fish oils are widely utilized in functional foods and nutraceutical formulations. However, their incorporation into food systems is often restricted because of their high susceptibility to oxidative deterioration, which can adversely affect product quality, shelf life and sensory characteristics. To overcome this limitation, oxidative instability can be minimized through the incorporation of antioxidants or by employing encapsulation techniques such as spray drying, which protect the oil from environmental factors including oxygen, light and heat.

    Methods: In this study, microencapsulated fish oil were prepared by spray drying. The maltodextrin, sodium caseinate and gum Arabic are used as wall materials for microencapsulation. Moreover, to minimize oxidation of lipids, pomegranate extract was added into fish oil emulsion and spray dried. Fish oil microencapsulates was used for preparation fortified pasta by cold extrusion process. The major ingredients used were wheat flour (as base material), fish oil microencapsulates (3%) and salt (1%). The physic-chemical and sensory properties of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta were analysed up to two months. 

    Result: The pomegranate extract had a DPPH activity of 76.76%. The encapsulation efficiency of fish oil encapsulates varied from 94.88% to 95.02%. The physical, chemical and functional properties of fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta was evaluated. The total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values and total plate count (TPC) were within acceptable limit during storage. Based on the sensory analysis microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained pomegranate peel extract was found to be superior to microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained bulk fish oil added one. 

    INTRODUCTION

    Fish oils are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and are great interest because of their effectiveness in prevention and treatment of several diseases (Patted et al., 2024). Due to its health benefits, it can be included in foods as a functional ingredient. The main problem of food enrichment with omega-3 rich fish oil is the unpleasant fishy flavour of fish oil, which has a negative influence on food acceptability (Kolanowski, 2005). However, undesirable off-flavour may be avoided by using high-quality fish oil at moderate addition levels, especially when protected in microencapsulated form and stabilised by the addition of antioxidants (Jeyakumari et al., 2018; Binsi et al., 2017). Encapsulation process is widely used for protecting active ingredients from heat and other environmental factors during processing thereby minimizing the access of undesirable flavours, enhancing stability and controlled release of active ingredients (Nisa et al., 2025; Anggraini et al., 2025). Spray-drying has been widely applied for the encapsulation of phenolic compounds derived from pomegranate peel, utilizing a range of carrier systems (Nisa et al., 2025). Very few studies have been reported on fortified snack food with fish oil (Agnikumar et al., 2015; Jeyakumari et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2021). Pasta is a widely consumed ready to cook product all over the world. It is an appealing product to the consumer due to its taste, texture, appearance, different shapes and sizes. The demand for ready to eat or ready to cook food products are gaining interest among the consumers with convenience preparation. Moreover, there is an increasing awareness towards the consumption of nutritious and healthy foods. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have numerous human health benefits. Enrichment of foods with omega-3 PUFA is regarded as a way of increasing dietary intake of these fatty acids in order to reduce levels of risk of various diseases (Kolanowski, 2005). Pasta is also considered to be a good energy source due to its complex carbohydrate content and low GI. Moreover, its convenience and palatability makes it a popular dish (Vito et al., 2009). Pasta is considered to be a potential vehicle for fortification by different nutraceuticals such as vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids. (Jacobsen et al., 2008). Traditionally, pasta is prepared from durum wheat semolina, although refined wheat flour is also commonly used in certain varieties. While semolina-based pasta serves as a good source of carbohydrates and provides moderate protein content, it is generally considered limited in functional and nutritional properties when compared to fortified or value-added pasta products enriched with dietary fiber, proteins, or bioactive compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Karpagavalli and Amutha, 2015; Sinha and Sharma, 2023). Conventional pasta is mainly rich in carbohydrates and provides moderate amounts of protein, but it contains very low levels of essential fatty acids. Incorporation of encapsulated fish oil enhances the nutritional profile of pasta by supplying bioactive lipids, particularly omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA, which are associated with several health benefits in human (Kolanowski, 2005; Patted et al., 2024). Hence, the present study aimed to develop fish oil-encapsulated fortified pasta and evaluate its physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Raw materials
     
    The fish oil (Seacod, Universal Medicare, Mumbai, India) was procured from local market at Mumbai.Sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and Gum Arabic were purchased from Himedia, India. The pomegranate extract purchased from Veda oils Pvt. Ltd, Cochin.
     
    Methods
     
    Preparation of fish oil microencapsulates by spray drying
     
    For the preparation of fish oil emulsion, wall materials consisting of sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and gum Arabic were dissolved in distilled water under continuous stirring until complete hydration was achieved. Subsequently, fish oil (1%, w/v) as the core material and pomegranate extract (0.5%, w/v) as a natural antioxidant were added to the hydrated wall material solution. The emulsion was prepared using a core-to-wall material ratio of 1:4. Accordingly, for every 1 g of fish oil used, a total of 4 g of wall material was incorporated, comprising sodium caseinate (2 g), maltodextrin (1 g) and gum Arabic (1 g). The formulation was then homogenized to obtain a stable emulsion prior to encapsulation. To ensure appropriate mixing of the components the emulsion was stirred at 1000 rpm for 30 minutes using magnetic stirrer. Then it was homogenised with a homogeniser at 25,000 rpm for 5minutes. Then it was allowed to settle for 1 hour at room temperature. Control was kept as fish oil emulsion prepared without pomegranate extract. The prepared fish oil emulsion were spray dried (Hemaraj Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India) under the following experimental conditions viz., inlet temperature 180°C, outlet temperature 90°C. The obtained fish oil encapsulates were stored in airtight conditions until further analysis. Since fish oil was used as a functional ingredient in the formulation, the final pasta product is categorized as a non-vegetarian functional food product.
     
    Preparation of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
     
    Four different formulations were made for preparing the fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta viz. i) Control-contained wheat flour (ii) CE-contained wheat flour, fish oil encapsulates (3%) iii) PE- contained wheat flour, fish oil encapsulates (3%) and pomegranate extract (0.5%) and  iv) FO-contained wheat flour, fish oil (1.0%). Commercially available whole wheat flour made from whole wheat grains was used in the study. Salt was incorporated at 1% in all formulations. Water was added at the required level to obtain a uniform dough consistency and the dough was subjected to a cold extrusion process for pasta preparation. The extruded pasta samples were then dried in a hot air dryer at 60°C for 1 h until the desired moisture level was attained. After drying, the pasta samples were cooled to room temperature, packed in laminated polyethylene pouches and stored under ambient conditions for further analysis.
     
    Quality analysis of pomegranate extract and fish oil encapsulates
     
    The antioxidant activity of pomegranate extract was determined by DPPH radical scavenging assay according to Nishino et al., (2000). The total phenolic content was measured by the method described by Druckerei (2002). The ferric reducing antioxidant power assay was determined according to Pisoschi et al., (2016).
           
    The proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat and ash) of fish oil microencapsulates was determined according to the methods prescribed by AOAC (2023) method. Total nitrogen content was estimated using the micro-Kjeldahl distillation method and the nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.38 was used for protein calculation, as this factor is widely recommended for milk and milk protein products. Since sodium caseinate was used as a wall material in the fish oil microencapsulates, the measured nitrogen content was multiplied by 6.38 to determine the crude protein content. The bulk density and tapped density of fish oil microencapsulates were determined according to Chinta et al., (2009). The Carr index and Hausner ratio of fish oil microencapsulates were calculated as described by Turchiuli et al., (2005). The Hygroscopicity of fish oil microencapsulates was evaluated according to Cai and Corke (2000). The total oil was determined according to Soxhlet method (AOAC, 2023). The surface oil was estimated as per the method followed by Sankarikutty et al., (1988). Encapsulation efficiency was calculated from difference between total oil and surface oil.
     
    Quality analysis of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
     
    The proximate composition of raw ingredients (whole wheat flour, sodium caseinate, maltodextrin and gum arabic), fish oil microencapsulates and fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta was determined according to AOAC (2023) method. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference method using the formula:
     
    Carbohydrate (%) = 100-(Moisture + Protein + Fat + Ash)
     
    Calorific value (Energy) was calculated by using the following formula:
     
    Energy (kcal/100 g) = (4×Protein) +(9×Fat) + (4×Carbohydrate)
     
    Water absorption capacity and Fat absorption capacity of pasta was determined by according to Anderson et al. (1969). The swelling Index was determined as described by Cleary and Brennan (2006). The cooking loss in pasta was determined as described in AACC (2000). The cooking time for pasta was determined according to AACC method (2000). Total plate count (TPC) was determined according to USFDA (2021). Staphylococcus aureus was determined according to USFDA (2016). The yeast and mold in the dried pasta were determined according to USFDA (2021). The sensory evaluation of pasta were carried out using 9 point hedonic scale (Meilgaard et al., 1999). For sensory evaluation, the dried pasta samples were cooked in potable water using a pasta-to-water ratio of 1:10 (w/v). Approximately 25 g of pasta was added to boiling water and cooked until the optimum cooking time was reached, as determined by the disappearance of the white core upon pressing the pasta strand between two glass plates. After cooking, the excess water was drained using a stainless-steel sieve and the cooked pasta was allowed to stand for 1-2 min to remove surface moisture. The samples were then served warm in coded plates to the sensory panellists for evaluation (Petitot et al., 2010). The panellist were asked to score for the sensory attribute such as appearance, color, texture, taste and overall acceptability.
           
    The data obtained by various quality analyses were subjected to one-way ANOVA (Analysis of variance). Duncan’s multiple range test was performed at 95% confidence level (P<0.05) by using the SPSS package with a version of 16.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, USA). All the analysis were carried out in triplicate and values were represented as mean±SD.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Antioxidant activity of pomegranate extract
     
    The pomegranate extract exhibited a DPPH activity of 76.76%, total phenolic content of 280.50 mg gallic acid equivalent/g of pomegranate extract and FRAP activity of 134.81 µM (FeII)/g. Mo et al., (2022) reported that the antioxidant activity of pomegranate extracts depended on the presence of anthocyanins, gallic acid, ellagic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid and punicalagin.
     
    Proximate composition of raw ingredients
     
    The commercially available whole wheat flour used in the study contained 10.2% moisture, 11.85% protein, 1.2% fat, 1.6% ash and 75.15% carbohydrate. Sodium caseinate, which served as the major wall material for microencapsulation, exhibited a high protein content of 91.50%, along with 3.2% moisture, 0.95% fat, 3.2% ash and 1.15% carbohydrate. Maltodextrin mainly contributed carbohydrates and contained 3.2% moisture, 0.4% protein, 0.35% fat, 1.20% ash and 94.85% carbohydrate. Gum Arabic contained 6.5% moisture, 2.5% protein, 0.50% fat, 3.5% ash and 87% carbohydrate. The significantly higher protein content observed in the encapsulated pasta samples was mainly attributed to the incorporation of sodium caseinate, a protein-rich encapsulating agent widely used in food microencapsulation due to its excellent emulsifying and film-forming properties (Kolanowski, 2005; Gharsallaoui et al., 2007).
     
    Physical and chemical properties of fish oil microencapsulates
     
    The fish oil encapsulates had 2.52±0.18 % to 2.63±0.96% moisture, 74.50±0.5% to 76.12±0.20% protein, 11.01 ±0.03% to 11.45±0.34% fat and 0.80±0.32% to 1.42±0.63% ash. The composition changes in fish oil encapsulates depends on wall material, concentration of oil used, method followed for emulsion and encapsulation (Gharsallaoui et al., 2007).  The flow properties of fish oil encapsulates is one of the important property which determines products packaging, storage and application (Fitzpatrick and Ahrne, 2005). In the present study, Hausner ratio of fish oil encapsulates was found to be 1.28-1.32 which indicate the flow properties of fish oil encapsulates are passable (Chinta et al., 2009). The encapsulation efficiency of fish oil encapsulates was found to be 95.02% and 94.88% for control, PEE sample  respectively (Table 1). Carneiro et al., (2013) observed similar results for flaxseed oil encapsulates contained maltodextrin and gum Arabic. The encapsulation efficiency of microcapsulates influenced by the ratio between the core and wall material (Gharsallaoui et al., 2007). Jeyakumari et al., (2018) observed 81.88% encapsulation efficiency for fish oil encapsulates contained oregano extract. In the present study, hygroscopictity of fish oil encapsulates ranged from 5.01% to 5.35% (Table 1). Generally, spray dried powder is easily prone to absorb moisture from the surrounding air. Samborska and Bienkowska (2013) reported that moisture absorption of spray dried powder is influenced by ingredient used and process condition applied.

    Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of fish oil microencapsulates.


     
    Proximate composition of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
     
    The moisture content of the pasta ranged from 10.31% to 11.53%. The moisture content in pasta varied with composition and extrusion conditions (Anbudhasan et al., 2014). The recommended moisture content for dried pasta is below 13%; accordingly, the pasta prepared in the present study met the requirement (Teresa et al., 2009). The results were in agreement with previous reports on pasta enriched with surimi powder and omega-3 fatty acids (Anbudhasan et al., 2014; Asik et al., 2024). The protein content of the fish oil microencapsulate-fortified pasta ranged from 23.81% to 24.31% (Table 2). The control pasta prepared solely from whole wheat flour contained comparatively lower protein levels. The higher protein content observed in CE and PE samples indicated that microencapsulation not only served as a protective system for fish oil but also enhanced the nutritional quality of the pasta by enriching it with additional protein from the encapsulating agents, particularly sodium caseinate. Similar improvements in protein content had been reported in fortified pasta products incorporated with protein-rich ingredients and encapsulated functional compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Dehghan-Shoar et al., 2010). The fat content was 0.48% in the control sample. In contrast, both fish oil encapsulate-and fish oil-incorporated pasta showed higher fat content ranging from 1.02% to 1.41%. The carbohydrate content of the pasta samples varied between 63.29% and 77.01%, while the calorific value ranged from 357.52 to 367.37 kcal/100 g. The comparatively higher energy values observed in the fortified pasta samples could be attributed to the increased fat and protein contents contributed by fish oil and encapsulating materials. Similar observations had been reported in fortified pasta products enriched with functional ingredients and lipid-based bioactive compounds (Petitot et al., 2010; Chillo et al., 2008).

    Table 2: Proximate composition of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta.


     
    Functional properties of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
     
    The highest water absorption capacity was found in control (85.34±3.40%). The oil absorption capacity was found to be in the range of 107.47±5.78% to 195.40 ±13.67% (Table 3). The difference in water and oil binding capacity could be related compositions of sample. Swelling index (SI) measures the water absorption by starch/protein during cooking (Alsohaimy et al., 2007). Higher Swelling Index was observed in the all the fortified pasta products compared to control. Sobhy et al., (2020) observed similar results for pasta fortified with chick pea isolate. Cooking loss measure the total soluble substances in the cooked water (Filip and Vidrih, 2015). The cook loss of the sample influenced by the drying temperature and density of the sample (Petitot et al., 2010). The highest value of cooking loss was for control and the least loss was observed in pasta contained bulk oil (FO). Moreover, all the sample had an acceptable limit (9%) of cook loss (AACC, 2000). Mostly the cooking time for all the samples was in the range of 7.5 minutes to 8.5 minutes. The cooking time was the highest for control pasta (8.5 minutes). The reduced cooking time influenced by increase rate water penetration (Padalino et al., 2014).

    Table 3: Functional and cooking properties of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


     
    Changes in biochemical quality of fish oil microencapsulates fortified pasta
     
    Moisture content of the pasta varied from 10.08% to 11.80%. The recommended moisture content in the pasta product is not more than 12.5% (FSSAI, 2011). Accordingly, all the samples had   within the acceptable limit of moisture content during storage. The pH values of all the pasta samples showed a gradual increase during storage. Total volatile base Nitrogen value ranged from 2.5 to 6.2 mg% (Table 4). PV and TBARS value measures the level of oxidation in the product. PV and TBARS value showed a gradual increase during storage. Results showed that PE had a lower PV and TBARS value than other which indicated less oxidation. Rahmani-Manglano et al. (2023) have reported that antioxidants are plays a major role in stabilizing fish oil emulsion and provide protection of lipids during spray drying. 

    Table 4: Biochemical quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


     
    Sensory quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
     
    The sensory evaluation revealed that sensory score for all the pasta received overall acceptability score between 6.8 to 7.8 (Table 5). However, pasta contained fish oil encapsulates and pomegranate extract (PM) rated high score by the panellist with an overall acceptability score of 7.8 and it was comparable with control. Agnikumar et al., (2015) and Jeyakumari et al., (2016) observed higher acceptance for fish oil encapsulates fortified cakes, cookies, respectively than fish oil incorporated cookies. Similarly. Results indicated that incorporation of fish oil encapsulates in the pasta found to have better acceptability without affecting texture and taste.

    Table 5: Sensory quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta.


     
    Microbial quality of microencapsulated fish oil fortified pasta
     
    The total plate count in the pasta was varied from 1.45×102 cfu/g to 2.90×102. It has been reported that total plate count in the marketable form of pasta should not be more than <104cfu/g (FSSAI, 2011). Accordingly, all the sample prepared in the study had a total plate count within acceptable limit during storage. Staphylococcus aureus, yeast and mold were absent in all the samples which indicated the pasta were prepared in hygienic condition with controlled drying process.

    CONCLUSION

    It can be concluded that fish oil encapsulates prepared in the study had highest encapsulation efficiency of 95.02%.  the pasta prepared in the study met the requirements of moisture and protein content. The chemical and microbiology quality of fish oil encapsulates fortified pasta revealed that total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values and total plate count (TPC) were within acceptable limit during storage. The sensory analysis indicated high score of acceptability for microencapsulated fish oil-fortified pasta contained pomegranate peel extract than pasta contained bulk fish oil. 

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Government of India. This is ICAR-CIFT contribution No.RPP/027/2025.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    This research did not involve any animal/human participation or any material that requires ethical approval. Therefore, informed consent was not required.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

    REFERENCES


    1. AACC. (2000). Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereals Chemists. 10th ed. Eagan Press; St. Paul, MN, USA. Methods Number. 66-50: 16-18.

    2. Anderson, R.A., Conway, H.F., Pfeifer, V.F. and Griffin, E.L. (1969).  Gelatinization of corn grits by roll- and extrusion-cooking.  Cereal Science Today. 14: 4-7. doi: 10.1094/CF-14-0004.

    3. Agnikumar, S., Lekshmi, M., Chouksey, M. K., Tripathi, G. and Gudipati, V. (2015). Delivery of omega-3 fatty acids into cake through emulsification of fish oil-in-milk and encapsulation by spray drying with added polymers. Drying  Technology. 33(1): 83-91. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2014. 936309.

    4. Alsohaimy, S.A., Sitohy, M.Z. and El-Masry, R.A. (2007). Isolation and partial characterization of chickpea, lupine and lintil seed proteins. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 3: 123-129.

    5. Anbudhasan, P., Asvini, G., Surendraraj, A., Ramasamy, D. and Sivakumar, T. (2014). Development of functional pasta enriched with omega-3 fatty acids. Fishery Technology. 51: 242-246.

    6. Anggraini, T., Azima, F., Anwar, A., Hervani, D., Suhendra, D., Wisnubroto, M.P., Noflindawati. and Putra, A.R. (2025). Characteristics of sugar palm sap powder (Arenga pinnata Merr.) produced using the foam-mat drying method with various encapsulant agents. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 1-7. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-490.

    7. AOAC.  (2023). Official Methods of Analysis  of the Association of Analytical Chemists. (22nd edn.). Washington, DC.

    8. Asik, I., Chowdhury, S., Nath, S., Dora, K.C., Murmu, P., Roy, S. and Bhattacharya, A. (2024). Standardization of drying temperature and time for surimi powder fortified pasta. Biological Forum-An International Journal. 16(1): 125- 131.

    9. Binsi, P.K., Nayak, N., Sarkar, P.C., Jeyakumari, A., Ashraf, P.M., Ninan, G. and  Ravishankar, C.N. (2017). Structural and oxidative stabilization of spray dried fish oil microencapsulates with gum arabic and sage polyphenols: characterization and release kinetics. Food Chemistry. 219: 158-168. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.160.

    10. Cai, Y.Z. and Corke, H. (2000). Production and properties of spray-dried amaranthus betacyanin pigments. Journal of Food Science. 65(7): 1248-1252. doi: 10.1111/j.1365- 2621.2000.tb09436.x.

    11. Carneiro, H.C.F., Renata V. T., Carlos R.F.G. and Míriam D.H. (2013). Encapsulation efficiency and oxidative stability of flaxseed oil microencapsulated by spray drying using different combinations of wall materials, Journal of Food Engineering. 115(4): 443-451. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.03.033.

    12. Chinta, D.D., Graves, R.A., Pamujula, S., Praetorius, N., Bostanian, L.A. and Mandal, T.K. (2009). Spray-dried chitosanas a direct compression tableting excipient. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 35: 43-48. doi: 10.1080/ 03639040802232947.

    13. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P.M., Protopapa, A. and Del Nobile, M.A. (2008). Influence of the addition of buckwheat flour and durum wheat bran on spaghetti quality. Journal of Cereal Science. 47(2): 144-152. doi: 10.1016/ j.jcs.2007.04.002.

    14. Cleary, L. and Brennan, C. (2006). The influence of a (1→3)(1→4)- β-d-glucan rich fraction from barley on the physico- chemical properties and in vitro reducing sugars release of durum wheat pasta. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 41(8): 910-918. doi: 10.1111/ j.1365-2621.2006.01168.x.

    15. Druckerei, C.H. (2002). European Pharmacopoeia, 4th edn. Beck, Nordlingen, p 187.

    16. Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Allan, K., Hardacre, Charles, S. and Brennan, CS. (2010). The physico-chemical characteristics of extruded snacks enriched with tomato lycopene. Food Chemistry. 123(4): 1117-1122. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem. 2010.05.042.

    17. Filip, S. and Vidrih, R. (2015). Amino acid composition of protein- enriched dried pasta: Is it suitable for a low-carbohydrate diet? Food Technology and Biotechnology. 53: 298-306. doi: 10.17113/ftb.53.03.15.3916.

    18. Fitzpatrick, J.J. and Ahrne, L. (2005). Food powder handling and processing: Industry problems, knowledge barriers and research opportunities. Chemical Engineering and Processing. 44:  209-214. doi: 10.1016/j.cep.2004.03.014.

    19. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, FSSAI. (2011), Food Safety and Standards [Food Safety and Standard (Food Products Standards and Food Additives)] Regulations. https://fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Food_Additives_ Regulations.pdf.

    20. Gharsallaoui, A., Gaelle, R., Odile, C., Andree, V. and Rémi, S. (2007). Applications of spray-drying in microencapsulation of food ingredients: An overview. Food Research International. 40(9): 1107-1121. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres. 2007.07.004.

    21. Jacobsen, C., Let, M.B., Nielsen, N.S. and Meyer, A.S. (2008). Antioxidant strategies for preventing oxidative flavour deterioration of foods enriched with n 3 polyunsaturated lipids: A comparative evaluation. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 19: 76-93. doi: 1016/j.tifs.2007.08.010.

    22. Jeyakumari, A., Janarthanan, G., Chouksey, M.K. and Venkateshwarlu, G. (2016). Effect of fish oil encapsulates incorporation on the physico-chemical and sensory properties of cookies. Journal of Food science and Technology. 53(1): 856-863. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-2051-y.

    23. Jeyakumari, A., Zynudheen, A.A., Parvathy, U. and Binsi, P.K. (2018). Impact of chitosan and oregano extract on the physicochemical properties of microencapsulated fish oil stored at different temperature. International Journal of Food Properties. 21(1): 943-956. doi: 10.1080/ 10942912.2018.1466328.

    24. Karpagavalli, B. and Amutha, S. (2015). Development of pasta products using cereal pulse blends. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 34(3): 213-218. doi: 10.5958/0976-0563.2015.00042.1.

    25. Kolanowski, W. (2005). Omega-3 LC PUFA contents and oxidative stability of encapsulated fish oil dietary supplements. International Journal of Food Properties. 8(3): 473-485. doi: 10.1080/10942910500269826.

    26. Kumar, L.R.G., Sanath Kumar, H., Tejpal, C.S., Anas, K.K., Nayak, B.B., Sarika, K., Greeshma, S.S., Chatterjee, N.S., Mathew, S. and Ravishankar, C.N. (2021). Exploring the physical and quality attributes of muffins incorporated with microencapsulated squalene as a functional food additive. Journal of Food Science Technology. 58(12): 4674-4684. doi: 10.1007/s13197-020-04964-4.

    27. Meilgaard, M., Civille, G.V. and Carr, B.T. (1999). Sensory Evaluation Techniques, 3rd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    28. Mo, Y., Ma, J., Gao, W., Zhang, L., Li, J. and Zang J. (2022).  Pomegranate peel as a source of bioactive compounds: A mini review on their physiological functions. Frontiers in Nutrition. 9: 887113. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.887113.

    29. Nisa, F.C., Ansori, F.A.Z. and Mubarok, A.Z. (2025). Optimization of spray drying conditions for production of functional goat milk powder enriched with pomegranate peel extract (Punica granatum L.). Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 44(Special Issue): 23-32. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-523.

    30. Nishino, T., Shibahara-Sone, H., Kikuchi-Hayakawa, H. and Lshikawa, F. (2000). Transit of radical scavenging activity of milk products prepared by millard reaction and Lactobacillus casei strain shirota fermentation through the hamster intestine. Journal of Dairy Science. 83: 915-922. doi: 10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(00)74956-1.

    31. Padalino L., Mastromatteo M., Lecce L., Spinelli S., Conte A. and Nobile M.A. (2014). Optimization and characterization of gluten-free spaghetti enriched with chickpea flour. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 7486: 1-11. doi: 10.3109/09637486.2013.879286.

    32. Patted, P.G., Masareddy, R.S., Patil, A.S., Kanabargi, R.R. and Bhat, C.T. (2024). Omega-3 fatty acids: A comprehensive scientific review of their sources, functions and health benefits. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 10: 94. doi: 10.1186/s43094-024-00647-5.

    33. Petitot, M., Boyer, L., Minier, C. and Micard, V. (2010). Fortification of pasta with split pea and faba bean flours: Pasta processing and quality evaluation. Food Research International. 43: 634-641. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres. 2009.07.020.

    34. Pisoschi, A.M., Pop, A., Cimpeanu, C. and Predoi, G. (2016). Antioxidant capacity determination in plants and plant-derived products: A review. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 1-36. 

    35. Rahmani-Manglano, N.E. and García-Moreno, P.J. (2023). Antioxidants location affects the oxidative stability of spray-dried microcapsules loaded with fish oil. Food Bioscience. 56: 2212-4292. doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103219.

    36. Sankarikutty, B., Sreekumar, M.M., Narayann, C.S. and Mathew, A.G. (1988). Studies on microencapsulation of cardamom oil by spray drying technique. Journal of Food Science and Technology.  25: 352-356.

    37. Samborska, K. and Bienkowska, K. (2013). Physicochemical properties of spray dried honey preparations. Zeszyty Problemowe Postêpów Nauk Rolniczych. pp 91-105.

    38. Sinha, R. and Sharma, B. (2023). Development and quality assessment of value-added pasta fortified with cauliflower leaf, carrot and mushroom powder. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR-2096.

    39. Sobhy, A. El Margareta, B., Amira, M.G.D. and Charles, B. (2020). Physicochemical, texture and sensorial evaluation of pasta enriched with chickpea flour and protein isolate. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 65(1): 28-34. doi: 10.1016/j.aoas.2020.05.002.

    40. Teresa, D.P., Roma, G., Antonio, D. and Carla, S. (2009). Study of cooking quality of spaghetti dried through microwaves and comparison with hot air dried pasta. Journal of Food Engineering. 95(3): 453-459. doi: 10.1016/ j.jfoodeng.2009.06.010.

    41. Turchiuli, C., Fuchs, M., Bohin, M., Cuvelier, M. E., Ordonnaud, C., Peyrat- Maillard, M.N. and Dumoulina, E. (2005). Oil encapsulation by spray drying and fluidized bed agglomeration. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 6(1): 29-35. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2004.11.001.

    42. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2021). Aerobic Plate Count. Bacteriological Analytical Manual. http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/ LaboratoryMethods/ucm063346.htm.

    43. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2021). Yeasts, Molds and Mycotoxins. Bacteriological Analytical Manual. https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods- food/bam-chapter-18-yeasts-molds-and-mycotoxins.

    44. United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (2016). Staphylococcus aureus. Bacteriological Analytical Manual https://www.fda.gov/food/laboratory-methods- food/bam-chapter-12-staphylococcus-aureus.

    45. Vito, V., Federico, F., Ylenia, R., Giovanna, I., Emanuele, M. and Maria F.C. (2009).  Evaluation of lipid oxidation in spaghetti pasta enriched with long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids under different storage conditions. Food Chemistry. 114(2): 472-477. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.102.
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)