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Full Research Article

Nutritional, Structural, Thermal and Bioactive Characterization of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm Rhizome

J
J. Divya Pramitha1,*
0009-0007-8686-2208
P
Paramasivam Raajeswari1
0000-0002-5311-0823
1Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore-641 043, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. (Polypodiaceae) is an ethnomedicinally significant pteridophyte traditionally associated with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer and anti-rheumatic properties owing to its diverse bioactive constituents.

Methods: This study comprehensively characterized Drynaria quercifolia Rhizome Powder (DQRP) by evaluating its nutritional composition, fatty acids, bioactive constituents, anti-nutritional factors, structural and thermal characteristics.

Result: DQRP exhibited a favourable nutritional composition, with considerable protein, soluble and insoluble fibre and carbohydrate content, together with notable levels of vitamin C and vitamin E. Fatty acid analysis revealed palmitic acid and linoleic acid as the major fatty acid methyl esters. DQRP also exhibited appreciable flavonoid, phenolic and terpenoid content, while anti-nutritional factors were present at levels comparable to those reported for other plant-based foods. Structural analysis (FTIR) indicated bands characteristic of functional groups associated with alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids and aromatic compounds, while thermal analysis showed moderate thermal stability. FESEM revealed an irregular, fibrous and layered morphology indicative of a porous structure that may be favourable for food applications. These findings represent a preliminary investigation of DQRP as a potential ingredient source for future functional food formulation studies.

INTRODUCTION

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. (family Polypodiaceae), an ethnomedicinal plant distributed across South and Southeast Asia, is locally known in Tamil Nadu as ‘Mudavaatukkal kilangu’ and is traditionally used for bone-and joint-related disorders. Various pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancer and gut microbiome-modulating effects, have been investigated previously through in vitro and in silico studies (Chaity et al., 2016; Devanesan et al., 2025; Ragavan and Srinivasan, 2024); however, these studies did not characterize the rhizome powder as an ingredient-level material.
       
Sureshkumar et al., (2026) reported the proximate composition but did not assess soluble and insoluble fibre or vitamins; although anti-nutritional factors such as phytate were assessed, tannin and oxalate contents were not reported. Devanesan et al., (2025) identified fatty acids only within a broader extract-based phytochemical fingerprint, rather than through dedicated fatty acid profiling. Similarly, morphological, structural and thermal characteristics have been reported for D. quercifolia-derived nanoparticles (Sarkar et al., 2026) and cellulose films (Amaldoss et al., 2025) but not for the rhizome powder itself.
       
A small number of studies, such as Vijayakumar et al., (2025), have incorporated D. quercifolia into food matrices, demonstrating the feasibility of its use in food systems. However, most available literature remains focused on extract-based pharmacological evaluations rather than the compositional and physicochemical characterization needed to support ingredient-level applications. The present study did not involve incorporation into a food matrix; instead, it addresses the gap in the compositional and physicochemical characterization of the rhizome powder.
       
Therefore, the present study aims to provide an integrated evaluation combining nutritional composition, anti-nutritional factors, bioactive compounds, fatty acid composition, morphological and structural characteristics and thermal behaviour. This comprehensive characterization is intended to generate baseline data, to explore the suitability of DQRP as a functional ingredient and to support its potential application in value-added food product development, as these factors influence critical parameters such as processing behaviour, stability and overall product quality.
       
The findings of this study are expected to provide preliminary information on DQRP as a potential source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, facilitating future investigations into functional-food applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collection and preparation of plant material
 
Fresh rhizome samples were collected from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India (approximately 11°18′32’’N,78°20′57’’E, 1300 m altitude) on 8 March 2025. The plant material was taxonomically authenticated by the Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore and assigned accession number BSI/SRC/5/23/2024-25/Tech./29. A voucher specimen was deposited in the departmental repository, Avinashilingam University, Coimbatore.
       
Fresh rhizomes (1 kg) were cleaned, washed, deskinned to remove woolly brown scales and leaves, rewashed with distilled water and grated using a manual grater. The grated rhizomes were shade-dried for 10 days in March 2025 (relative humidity 51%-58%; temperature, 22-36°C) until a constant weight was achieved, yielding 247.4 g of dried rhizome, which was ground into a fine powder (Fig 1). The following analysis were performed using a single batch; samples were stored at room temperature (RT: 25±2°C, 60% RH) for no longer than 10 days in airtight conditions and all the results were obtained on a dry weight basis.

Fig 1: Sequential processing steps involved in the preparation of Drynaria quercifolia rhizome powder.


 
Yield and nutritional composition analysis
 
Total yield (%) was calculated as (sample dry weight/fresh sample weight) × 100. Moisture was determined by oven drying at 110°C with weighing at 30 min intervals until a constant weight was achieved; ash by incineration in a muffle furnace at 500-600°C until a white ash was obtained; crude fat by extraction using petroleum ether in a Soxhlet apparatus for 16 h followed by gravimetric quantification; crude fibre by sequential acid (0.255 N H2SO4) and alkali (0.313 N NaOH) digestion of the defatted sample; crude protein by acid digestion, distillation and titration against 0.1 N HCl and calculated as % Nitrogen × 6.25; energy value was determined as described by Hira et al., (2024) with slight modifications. Soluble and insoluble fibre contents were determined according to Gunawardhana et al., (2026) with slight modifications.

Vitamin analysis
 
Vitamin A, total carotenoid, vitamin B2, vitamin C and vitamin E were determined as per Fategbe et al., (2021); Soroka et al., (2012); Bartzatt (2014); Tayar et al., (2023) and Prieto et al., (1999) respectively. The detailed methods are provided in the supplementary data.
 
Fatty acid composition analysis
 
Fatty acid composition was analysed by Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) (Latimer, 2023) using an Rt-2560 Capillary Column (100 × 0.25 mm ID × 0.20 µm film thickness), with injector and detector temperatures maintained at 225°C and 260°C respectively. The lipid extracted from DQRP by Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether (300 µL) was converted to fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) by adding 3 mL of hexane and 1 mL of 2% sodium methoxide to a sample vial. The reaction mixture was mixed thoroughly and the upper hexane layer was collected. The extraction was repeated by adding 3-5 mL of water, followed by vortexing and the supernatant was collected. The resulting solution was filtered through Whatman No.2 filter paper containing anhydrous sodium sulphate to remove any trace of water. A 1 µL sample was injected over an 80 min run with an oven temperature program that began at 140°C (5 min hold) and increased at 4°C/min to 240°C (75 min hold), using nitrogen carrier gas (makeup flow of 25 mL/min). Fatty acids were identified by comparison with standard FAME mixtures and expressed as relative peak areas. Total saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were calculated from the relative peak area percentage of the individual FAMEs in each class.
 
Determination of anti-nutritional factors
 
Oxalate was determined as described by Bergerman and Elliot (1955), phytate was evaluated based on the method of Pramitha et al., (2020) and tannin was analysed as described in Pokharel et al., (2024). The detailed methods are included in the supplementary data.
 
Determination of bioactive compounds
 
Total flavonoid content (TFC) and total phenolic content (TPC) were quantified as described in Safaei et al., (2024) and Ydyrys et al., (2021), respectively, while the terpenoid content was estimated as per Truong et al., (2021) with slight modifications. The detailed procedures are included in the supplementary data.
 
Morphological, structural and thermal characterization
 
The surface morphology and elemental composition of the DQRP were examined using a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy (Model Tescan-Mira 3 XMU). The analysis was performed at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV and a probe current of 20 nA. The samples were examined at magnifications ranging from 500× to 3000×.
       
The organic functional groups present in DQRP samples were identified using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Shimadzu MIRacle10). Approximately 0.5 g of sample was analysed and the spectra were recorded in the wavenumber range of 450-4000 cm-1 at 16 runs per scan (Mohammed et al., 2026). The thermal stability of the DQRP was studied using a thermogravimetric analyser (TG/DTA-EXSTAR/6300). Approximately 1.5 mg of sample was placed in an alumina pan and heated in an inert nitrogen atmosphere from 30 to 800°C at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Weight loss was recorded as a function of temperature and the data were generated for further analysis.
 
Data analysis
 
All analysis were performed in triplicate (n=3), representing technical replicates from a single batch and the results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD), reflecting technical variability. Data were analysed using MS Excel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate composition analysis
 
The shade drying process yielded a low powder recovery (24.74%; Table 1), indicating that approximately 75.26% of the initial fresh weight was lost during preprocessing and drying. Moisture content remained below 10%, within the range reported for dried food powders. An ash content of approximately 5.4% indicates an appreciable mineral fraction. The crude fat content analysed may represent the solvent-extractable lipid fractions, which may comprise a wide range of lipophilic constituents. Soluble and insoluble fibre contents, likely derived from pectin, mucilages, gums, inulin, hemicellulose and lignin, have been associated with improved gastrointestinal function and gut health, while the considerable protein content supports overall growth, repair, maintenance and normal physiological functions. The nutritional composition results were consistent with previously reported studies (Sureshkumar et al., 2026). Furthermore, soluble and insoluble fibre have not previously been reported for this rhizome.

Table 1: Proximate composition and vitamin analysis of DQRP.


 
Vitamin analysis
 
 The vitamin content of DQRP is presented in Table 1. The nutritional contributions of the identified vitamins were calculated as a percentage of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for a sedentary adult woman (ICMR-NIN, 2024), which indicated that a 10 g serving provides 0.6% of  the RDA for vitamin A, 22.6% of riboflavin, 3.2% of vitamin C, 10% of vitamin E and 5% of β-carotene respectively. As these values represent total analytical content on a dry weight basis, bioavailability was not assessed in the present study and actual physiological contributions may differ. Vitamin C is an essential water-soluble antioxidant and cofactor for numerous biochemical processes and it supports the development and maintenance of the epithelial barrier function, while vitamin E, the primary fat-soluble antioxidant, protects cellular membranes against oxidative damage from reactive oxygen species and its synergy with vitamin C is effective in the prevention of various disease conditions. Vitamin B2 is reported to exhibit health benefits including antioxidant properties and activation of the immune system, while vitamin A and its precursor β-carotene support cellular differentiation and epithelial integrity (Gombart et al., 2020). The shade drying and subsequent RT storage may have affected vitamin retention, although losses are likely to be lower than with other conventional drying methods (Thamkaew et al., 2021).
 
Fatty acid composition analysis
 
Table 2 shows that unsaturated fatty acids were slightly more abundant than saturated fatty acids. Palmitic and stearic acids were the most abundant saturated fatty acids, supporting cell membrane integrity, while oleic and linoleic acids predominated among the unsaturated fatty acids. These fatty acids have established physiological roles in cellular structure and lipid metabolism and have been associated with the maintenance of normal physiological functions (Jayaprakash et al., 2024). A similar pattern of predominance has been reported in the rhizome of the same species (Costa et al., 2021). GC-FID indicated a fat content of 2.46%, compared with 11.42% by crude fat analysis; this difference may be attributed to non-fatty acid lipophilic constituents not captured by GC-FID based fatty acid analysis. The present findings are interpreted as a characterization of its fatty acid profile rather than evidence of a specific physiological benefit.

Table 2: Fatty acid composition of DQRP sample.


 
Anti-nutritional factors
 
DQRP exhibited low to moderate concentrations of anti-nutritional factors (Table 3). The tannin, oxalate and phytate contents were comparable to those reported for green leafy vegetables and legumes, respectively. Although these compounds may affect nutrient bioavailability at higher concentrations, previous studies report that their impact can be minimized through appropriate serving size and pre-processing methods such as soaking, boiling and germination, which promote leaching and microbial degradation (Akter et al., 2020; Joshi et al., 2026). These approaches were not included in this study and are suggested as potential processing strategies for future investigations.

Table 3: Anti-nutritional factors and phytochemical composition of DQRP extract.


 
Bioactive compounds
 
Phenolics and flavonoids are critical secondary metabolites and are well correlated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of medicinal plants (Sun and Shahrajabian, 2023). The TPC and TFC values obtained were 72.42±1.13 mg GAE/g extract and 46.72±1.53 mg QE/g extract respectively (Table 3), which differed from the values reported by Runa et al., (2013) for D. quercifolia leaves. Terpenoids, which have been implicated in the prevention and treatment of several inflammatory diseases (Ríos, 2010), were also present at appreciable levels consistent with the predominance of terpenoids reported through GC-MS analysis by Costa et al., (2021). Overall, the differences observed may be attributed to variations in geographical origin, genetic factors and processing methods.
 
Structural and thermal characterization
 
FESEM analysis revealed that DQRP exhibited irregular, heterogeneous particles with fibrous and layered morphology (Fig 2). The surface roughness observed may be ascribed to several factors, encompassing the botanical origin of the material, processing methods and inherent structural properties. At lower magnifications (500-1090×), the powder exhibited aggregated sheet-like structures and fractured lamellar matrices. At higher magnification (3050×), a rough surface topology with micro-cracks and surface projections was observed, indicating disruption of cell wall structures during drying and grinding. The porous, rough and fractured surface texture suggests a relatively high surface area, which may positively influence dissolution kinetics and therapeutic effectiveness, this could be explored in future studies (Awari et al., 2024). Furthermore, EDX analysis revealed that potassium was abundant in DQRP (Fig 2e).

Fig 2: FESEM micrographs of DQRP: (a) 503´ (b) 1.09k´ (c)2.02k´ and (d)3.05k´ and (e) EDX spectrum.


       
The FTIR spectrum revealed twelve characteristic absorption peaks, indicating the presence of diverse functional groups (Fig 3). Six peaks were observed in the single bond region, corresponding to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen-bonded alcohol O-H stretching, N-H stretching (Maiyo, 2025) and C-H stretching vibrations indicating the presence of alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids, alkanes and primary or secondary amines/amides (Amponsah et al., 2022). In the double-bond region, a prominent peak at 1612.49 cm-1 was attributed to C-H, C=C-C stretching vibrations, suggesting the presence of aromatic compounds (Wongsa et al., 2022). In the fingerprint region, a broad, strong peak at 1026.13 cm-1 corresponded to C-O and C-C stretching, indicating the presence of alcohols and ethers. The narrow peaks at 663.51, 563.21, 516.92 and 432.05 cm-1 were attributed to out-of-plane C-H bending and metal-ligand or skeletal vibrations, which could be associated with aromatic compounds and complex organic compounds (Dev and Mukadam, 2025). These functional groups are characteristic of phenolics, flavonoids and terpenoids, which are associated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Fig 3: FTIR spectra of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm rhizome powder.


       
Thermal behaviour is critical for understanding decomposition patterns of food matrices and for optimizing processing conditions (Giri et al., 2026). TGA indicates percentage weight loss, while DTG reflects the rate of weight loss as a function of temperature. DQRP exhibited weight loss in three distinct phases (Fig 4). An initial phase was observed between 30-50°C, with a weight loss of approximately 5% accompanied by a minor DTG peak representing the evaporation of free and loosely bound moisture as well as the decomposition of certain low- molecular weight volatile compounds. The second and major decomposition stage occurred over the temperature range of 60-550°C, with the maximum weight loss of 74.8%. This phase is characteristic of thermal decomposition of the principal organic compounds, including starch, fibre, proteins and/or lipids. The broad degradation stage suggests that these components remain structurally stable under conventional food processing temperatures and decompose only at substantially elevated temperatures. The third and final degradation phase (550-800°C; 8.8% weight loss) represented the breakdown of lignin-derived structures and char residues (Emiola-Sadiq et al., 2021). Overall, a total weight loss of 88.6% was recorded, leaving the residual mass of 11.4% corresponding to the inorganic mineral content of the sample. The combined FTIR and TGA analyses therefore provide preliminary evidence supporting structural integrity, functional groups and processing suitability of DQRP.

Fig 4: TGA of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm rhizome powder.


       
Overall, the present study provides baseline ingredient-level data complementing the existing extract-based pharmacological evidence.

CONCLUSION

The study provided a comprehensive nutritional, bioactive, anti-nutritional, structural and thermal characterization of Drynaria quercifolia rhizome powder. DQRP exhibited a favourable nutritional profile including its proximate and vitamin profile. Linoleic acid and palmitic acid dominated the polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids respectively, while vitamin C and vitamin E were the predominant vitamins identified. Appreciable flavonoid, phenolic and terpenoid contents underscored DQRP’s bioactive potential. The low to moderate levels of anti-nutritional factors further support its nutritional suitability, while FTIR and TGA analysis provided insights into its structural characteristics and thermal behaviour, suggesting potential compatibility with food processing applications. FESEM demonstrated irregular, heterogeneous particles with fibrous and layered morphology suggesting a relatively high surface area that may favour surface area-dependent functional properties. Collectively, these findings provide baseline compositional and physicochemical data for DQRP. Further investigations focusing on microbial safety, bioavailability, processing effects and bioactivity evaluation are needed before any functional application can be considered.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, under the Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) Scheme.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Nutritional, Structural, Thermal and Bioactive Characterization of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm Rhizome

    J
    J. Divya Pramitha1,*
    0009-0007-8686-2208
    P
    Paramasivam Raajeswari1
    0000-0002-5311-0823
    1Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore-641 043, Tamil Nadu, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. (Polypodiaceae) is an ethnomedicinally significant pteridophyte traditionally associated with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer and anti-rheumatic properties owing to its diverse bioactive constituents.

    Methods: This study comprehensively characterized Drynaria quercifolia Rhizome Powder (DQRP) by evaluating its nutritional composition, fatty acids, bioactive constituents, anti-nutritional factors, structural and thermal characteristics.

    Result: DQRP exhibited a favourable nutritional composition, with considerable protein, soluble and insoluble fibre and carbohydrate content, together with notable levels of vitamin C and vitamin E. Fatty acid analysis revealed palmitic acid and linoleic acid as the major fatty acid methyl esters. DQRP also exhibited appreciable flavonoid, phenolic and terpenoid content, while anti-nutritional factors were present at levels comparable to those reported for other plant-based foods. Structural analysis (FTIR) indicated bands characteristic of functional groups associated with alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids and aromatic compounds, while thermal analysis showed moderate thermal stability. FESEM revealed an irregular, fibrous and layered morphology indicative of a porous structure that may be favourable for food applications. These findings represent a preliminary investigation of DQRP as a potential ingredient source for future functional food formulation studies.

    INTRODUCTION

    Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. (family Polypodiaceae), an ethnomedicinal plant distributed across South and Southeast Asia, is locally known in Tamil Nadu as ‘Mudavaatukkal kilangu’ and is traditionally used for bone-and joint-related disorders. Various pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancer and gut microbiome-modulating effects, have been investigated previously through in vitro and in silico studies (Chaity et al., 2016; Devanesan et al., 2025; Ragavan and Srinivasan, 2024); however, these studies did not characterize the rhizome powder as an ingredient-level material.
           
    Sureshkumar et al., (2026) reported the proximate composition but did not assess soluble and insoluble fibre or vitamins; although anti-nutritional factors such as phytate were assessed, tannin and oxalate contents were not reported. Devanesan et al., (2025) identified fatty acids only within a broader extract-based phytochemical fingerprint, rather than through dedicated fatty acid profiling. Similarly, morphological, structural and thermal characteristics have been reported for D. quercifolia-derived nanoparticles (Sarkar et al., 2026) and cellulose films (Amaldoss et al., 2025) but not for the rhizome powder itself.
           
    A small number of studies, such as Vijayakumar et al., (2025), have incorporated D. quercifolia into food matrices, demonstrating the feasibility of its use in food systems. However, most available literature remains focused on extract-based pharmacological evaluations rather than the compositional and physicochemical characterization needed to support ingredient-level applications. The present study did not involve incorporation into a food matrix; instead, it addresses the gap in the compositional and physicochemical characterization of the rhizome powder.
           
    Therefore, the present study aims to provide an integrated evaluation combining nutritional composition, anti-nutritional factors, bioactive compounds, fatty acid composition, morphological and structural characteristics and thermal behaviour. This comprehensive characterization is intended to generate baseline data, to explore the suitability of DQRP as a functional ingredient and to support its potential application in value-added food product development, as these factors influence critical parameters such as processing behaviour, stability and overall product quality.
           
    The findings of this study are expected to provide preliminary information on DQRP as a potential source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, facilitating future investigations into functional-food applications.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Collection and preparation of plant material
     
    Fresh rhizome samples were collected from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India (approximately 11°18′32’’N,78°20′57’’E, 1300 m altitude) on 8 March 2025. The plant material was taxonomically authenticated by the Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore and assigned accession number BSI/SRC/5/23/2024-25/Tech./29. A voucher specimen was deposited in the departmental repository, Avinashilingam University, Coimbatore.
           
    Fresh rhizomes (1 kg) were cleaned, washed, deskinned to remove woolly brown scales and leaves, rewashed with distilled water and grated using a manual grater. The grated rhizomes were shade-dried for 10 days in March 2025 (relative humidity 51%-58%; temperature, 22-36°C) until a constant weight was achieved, yielding 247.4 g of dried rhizome, which was ground into a fine powder (Fig 1). The following analysis were performed using a single batch; samples were stored at room temperature (RT: 25±2°C, 60% RH) for no longer than 10 days in airtight conditions and all the results were obtained on a dry weight basis.

    Fig 1: Sequential processing steps involved in the preparation of Drynaria quercifolia rhizome powder.


     
    Yield and nutritional composition analysis
     
    Total yield (%) was calculated as (sample dry weight/fresh sample weight) × 100. Moisture was determined by oven drying at 110°C with weighing at 30 min intervals until a constant weight was achieved; ash by incineration in a muffle furnace at 500-600°C until a white ash was obtained; crude fat by extraction using petroleum ether in a Soxhlet apparatus for 16 h followed by gravimetric quantification; crude fibre by sequential acid (0.255 N H2SO4) and alkali (0.313 N NaOH) digestion of the defatted sample; crude protein by acid digestion, distillation and titration against 0.1 N HCl and calculated as % Nitrogen × 6.25; energy value was determined as described by Hira et al., (2024) with slight modifications. Soluble and insoluble fibre contents were determined according to Gunawardhana et al., (2026) with slight modifications.

    Vitamin analysis
     
    Vitamin A, total carotenoid, vitamin B2, vitamin C and vitamin E were determined as per Fategbe et al., (2021); Soroka et al., (2012); Bartzatt (2014); Tayar et al., (2023) and Prieto et al., (1999) respectively. The detailed methods are provided in the supplementary data.
     
    Fatty acid composition analysis
     
    Fatty acid composition was analysed by Gas Chromatography coupled with Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) (Latimer, 2023) using an Rt-2560 Capillary Column (100 × 0.25 mm ID × 0.20 µm film thickness), with injector and detector temperatures maintained at 225°C and 260°C respectively. The lipid extracted from DQRP by Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether (300 µL) was converted to fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) by adding 3 mL of hexane and 1 mL of 2% sodium methoxide to a sample vial. The reaction mixture was mixed thoroughly and the upper hexane layer was collected. The extraction was repeated by adding 3-5 mL of water, followed by vortexing and the supernatant was collected. The resulting solution was filtered through Whatman No.2 filter paper containing anhydrous sodium sulphate to remove any trace of water. A 1 µL sample was injected over an 80 min run with an oven temperature program that began at 140°C (5 min hold) and increased at 4°C/min to 240°C (75 min hold), using nitrogen carrier gas (makeup flow of 25 mL/min). Fatty acids were identified by comparison with standard FAME mixtures and expressed as relative peak areas. Total saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were calculated from the relative peak area percentage of the individual FAMEs in each class.
     
    Determination of anti-nutritional factors
     
    Oxalate was determined as described by Bergerman and Elliot (1955), phytate was evaluated based on the method of Pramitha et al., (2020) and tannin was analysed as described in Pokharel et al., (2024). The detailed methods are included in the supplementary data.
     
    Determination of bioactive compounds
     
    Total flavonoid content (TFC) and total phenolic content (TPC) were quantified as described in Safaei et al., (2024) and Ydyrys et al., (2021), respectively, while the terpenoid content was estimated as per Truong et al., (2021) with slight modifications. The detailed procedures are included in the supplementary data.
     
    Morphological, structural and thermal characterization
     
    The surface morphology and elemental composition of the DQRP were examined using a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy (Model Tescan-Mira 3 XMU). The analysis was performed at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV and a probe current of 20 nA. The samples were examined at magnifications ranging from 500× to 3000×.
           
    The organic functional groups present in DQRP samples were identified using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Shimadzu MIRacle10). Approximately 0.5 g of sample was analysed and the spectra were recorded in the wavenumber range of 450-4000 cm-1 at 16 runs per scan (Mohammed et al., 2026). The thermal stability of the DQRP was studied using a thermogravimetric analyser (TG/DTA-EXSTAR/6300). Approximately 1.5 mg of sample was placed in an alumina pan and heated in an inert nitrogen atmosphere from 30 to 800°C at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Weight loss was recorded as a function of temperature and the data were generated for further analysis.
     
    Data analysis
     
    All analysis were performed in triplicate (n=3), representing technical replicates from a single batch and the results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD), reflecting technical variability. Data were analysed using MS Excel.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Proximate composition analysis
     
    The shade drying process yielded a low powder recovery (24.74%; Table 1), indicating that approximately 75.26% of the initial fresh weight was lost during preprocessing and drying. Moisture content remained below 10%, within the range reported for dried food powders. An ash content of approximately 5.4% indicates an appreciable mineral fraction. The crude fat content analysed may represent the solvent-extractable lipid fractions, which may comprise a wide range of lipophilic constituents. Soluble and insoluble fibre contents, likely derived from pectin, mucilages, gums, inulin, hemicellulose and lignin, have been associated with improved gastrointestinal function and gut health, while the considerable protein content supports overall growth, repair, maintenance and normal physiological functions. The nutritional composition results were consistent with previously reported studies (Sureshkumar et al., 2026). Furthermore, soluble and insoluble fibre have not previously been reported for this rhizome.

    Table 1: Proximate composition and vitamin analysis of DQRP.


     
    Vitamin analysis
     
     The vitamin content of DQRP is presented in Table 1. The nutritional contributions of the identified vitamins were calculated as a percentage of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for a sedentary adult woman (ICMR-NIN, 2024), which indicated that a 10 g serving provides 0.6% of  the RDA for vitamin A, 22.6% of riboflavin, 3.2% of vitamin C, 10% of vitamin E and 5% of β-carotene respectively. As these values represent total analytical content on a dry weight basis, bioavailability was not assessed in the present study and actual physiological contributions may differ. Vitamin C is an essential water-soluble antioxidant and cofactor for numerous biochemical processes and it supports the development and maintenance of the epithelial barrier function, while vitamin E, the primary fat-soluble antioxidant, protects cellular membranes against oxidative damage from reactive oxygen species and its synergy with vitamin C is effective in the prevention of various disease conditions. Vitamin B2 is reported to exhibit health benefits including antioxidant properties and activation of the immune system, while vitamin A and its precursor β-carotene support cellular differentiation and epithelial integrity (Gombart et al., 2020). The shade drying and subsequent RT storage may have affected vitamin retention, although losses are likely to be lower than with other conventional drying methods (Thamkaew et al., 2021).
     
    Fatty acid composition analysis
     
    Table 2 shows that unsaturated fatty acids were slightly more abundant than saturated fatty acids. Palmitic and stearic acids were the most abundant saturated fatty acids, supporting cell membrane integrity, while oleic and linoleic acids predominated among the unsaturated fatty acids. These fatty acids have established physiological roles in cellular structure and lipid metabolism and have been associated with the maintenance of normal physiological functions (Jayaprakash et al., 2024). A similar pattern of predominance has been reported in the rhizome of the same species (Costa et al., 2021). GC-FID indicated a fat content of 2.46%, compared with 11.42% by crude fat analysis; this difference may be attributed to non-fatty acid lipophilic constituents not captured by GC-FID based fatty acid analysis. The present findings are interpreted as a characterization of its fatty acid profile rather than evidence of a specific physiological benefit.

    Table 2: Fatty acid composition of DQRP sample.


     
    Anti-nutritional factors
     
    DQRP exhibited low to moderate concentrations of anti-nutritional factors (Table 3). The tannin, oxalate and phytate contents were comparable to those reported for green leafy vegetables and legumes, respectively. Although these compounds may affect nutrient bioavailability at higher concentrations, previous studies report that their impact can be minimized through appropriate serving size and pre-processing methods such as soaking, boiling and germination, which promote leaching and microbial degradation (Akter et al., 2020; Joshi et al., 2026). These approaches were not included in this study and are suggested as potential processing strategies for future investigations.

    Table 3: Anti-nutritional factors and phytochemical composition of DQRP extract.


     
    Bioactive compounds
     
    Phenolics and flavonoids are critical secondary metabolites and are well correlated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of medicinal plants (Sun and Shahrajabian, 2023). The TPC and TFC values obtained were 72.42±1.13 mg GAE/g extract and 46.72±1.53 mg QE/g extract respectively (Table 3), which differed from the values reported by Runa et al., (2013) for D. quercifolia leaves. Terpenoids, which have been implicated in the prevention and treatment of several inflammatory diseases (Ríos, 2010), were also present at appreciable levels consistent with the predominance of terpenoids reported through GC-MS analysis by Costa et al., (2021). Overall, the differences observed may be attributed to variations in geographical origin, genetic factors and processing methods.
     
    Structural and thermal characterization
     
    FESEM analysis revealed that DQRP exhibited irregular, heterogeneous particles with fibrous and layered morphology (Fig 2). The surface roughness observed may be ascribed to several factors, encompassing the botanical origin of the material, processing methods and inherent structural properties. At lower magnifications (500-1090×), the powder exhibited aggregated sheet-like structures and fractured lamellar matrices. At higher magnification (3050×), a rough surface topology with micro-cracks and surface projections was observed, indicating disruption of cell wall structures during drying and grinding. The porous, rough and fractured surface texture suggests a relatively high surface area, which may positively influence dissolution kinetics and therapeutic effectiveness, this could be explored in future studies (Awari et al., 2024). Furthermore, EDX analysis revealed that potassium was abundant in DQRP (Fig 2e).

    Fig 2: FESEM micrographs of DQRP: (a) 503´ (b) 1.09k´ (c)2.02k´ and (d)3.05k´ and (e) EDX spectrum.


           
    The FTIR spectrum revealed twelve characteristic absorption peaks, indicating the presence of diverse functional groups (Fig 3). Six peaks were observed in the single bond region, corresponding to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen-bonded alcohol O-H stretching, N-H stretching (Maiyo, 2025) and C-H stretching vibrations indicating the presence of alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids, alkanes and primary or secondary amines/amides (Amponsah et al., 2022). In the double-bond region, a prominent peak at 1612.49 cm-1 was attributed to C-H, C=C-C stretching vibrations, suggesting the presence of aromatic compounds (Wongsa et al., 2022). In the fingerprint region, a broad, strong peak at 1026.13 cm-1 corresponded to C-O and C-C stretching, indicating the presence of alcohols and ethers. The narrow peaks at 663.51, 563.21, 516.92 and 432.05 cm-1 were attributed to out-of-plane C-H bending and metal-ligand or skeletal vibrations, which could be associated with aromatic compounds and complex organic compounds (Dev and Mukadam, 2025). These functional groups are characteristic of phenolics, flavonoids and terpenoids, which are associated with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

    Fig 3: FTIR spectra of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm rhizome powder.


           
    Thermal behaviour is critical for understanding decomposition patterns of food matrices and for optimizing processing conditions (Giri et al., 2026). TGA indicates percentage weight loss, while DTG reflects the rate of weight loss as a function of temperature. DQRP exhibited weight loss in three distinct phases (Fig 4). An initial phase was observed between 30-50°C, with a weight loss of approximately 5% accompanied by a minor DTG peak representing the evaporation of free and loosely bound moisture as well as the decomposition of certain low- molecular weight volatile compounds. The second and major decomposition stage occurred over the temperature range of 60-550°C, with the maximum weight loss of 74.8%. This phase is characteristic of thermal decomposition of the principal organic compounds, including starch, fibre, proteins and/or lipids. The broad degradation stage suggests that these components remain structurally stable under conventional food processing temperatures and decompose only at substantially elevated temperatures. The third and final degradation phase (550-800°C; 8.8% weight loss) represented the breakdown of lignin-derived structures and char residues (Emiola-Sadiq et al., 2021). Overall, a total weight loss of 88.6% was recorded, leaving the residual mass of 11.4% corresponding to the inorganic mineral content of the sample. The combined FTIR and TGA analyses therefore provide preliminary evidence supporting structural integrity, functional groups and processing suitability of DQRP.

    Fig 4: TGA of Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm rhizome powder.


           
    Overall, the present study provides baseline ingredient-level data complementing the existing extract-based pharmacological evidence.

    CONCLUSION

    The study provided a comprehensive nutritional, bioactive, anti-nutritional, structural and thermal characterization of Drynaria quercifolia rhizome powder. DQRP exhibited a favourable nutritional profile including its proximate and vitamin profile. Linoleic acid and palmitic acid dominated the polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids respectively, while vitamin C and vitamin E were the predominant vitamins identified. Appreciable flavonoid, phenolic and terpenoid contents underscored DQRP’s bioactive potential. The low to moderate levels of anti-nutritional factors further support its nutritional suitability, while FTIR and TGA analysis provided insights into its structural characteristics and thermal behaviour, suggesting potential compatibility with food processing applications. FESEM demonstrated irregular, heterogeneous particles with fibrous and layered morphology suggesting a relatively high surface area that may favour surface area-dependent functional properties. Collectively, these findings provide baseline compositional and physicochemical data for DQRP. Further investigations focusing on microbial safety, bioavailability, processing effects and bioactivity evaluation are needed before any functional application can be considered.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by the University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, under the Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) Scheme.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

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