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Spray-dried Finger Millet Milk Powder: Quality and Shelf-life Evaluation

A
A. Yasmin Fathimaa1
0000-0002-0322-6422
S
S. Tamil Malar1
0009-0008-7551-5929
P
Pavithra Amritkumar2,3,*
0000-0002-5913-6397
1Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Chennai-600 078, Tamil Nadu, India.
2Department of Microbiology, Meenakshi Ammal Dental College and Hospital, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Maduravoyal, Chennai-600 095, Tamil Nadu, India.
3Department of Research, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Chennai-600 078, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a nutrient-dense cereal traditionally used in South Indian households as complementary foods due to its high content of dietary fiber, iron, calcium and essential amino acids. However, conventional preparation methods are labour-intensive, time-consuming and offer limited shelf stability, restricting their regular use in modern households. The present study aimed to develop a convenient spray-dried finger millet milk powder inspired by traditional formulations and to evaluate its physicochemical, nutritional, sensory and storage stability characteristics.

Methods: Finger millet grains were processed to obtain milk, which was subsequently converted into powder utilizing the spray drying technique. The developed product was evaluated for its physicochemical properties, including moisture, water activity, water absorption index, water solubility index, gelatinization time and temperature. Nutritional analysis was determined using standard AOAC methods. A nine-point hedonic scale was used for sensory evaluation and shelf stability was assessed through physical, chemical and microbial analyses under controlled storage condition.

Result: The powder that was spray dried showed moisture content of 4% and water activity index of 0.569, indicating good storage stability. Functional characteristics revealed a water solubility index of 4.245 and a water absorption index of 161.7%. Compared to fresh extract, the powder gelatinized more quickly while retaining vital nutrients. Studies on shelf life showed stability up to 50 days in ambient conditions and sensory evaluation revealed sensory acceptance. These findings suggest that spray drying can effectively produce a stable, convenient and nutrient-rich finger millet milk powder suitable for modern lifestyles.

INTRODUCTION

According to the world health organization, complementary feeding is a  process of providing  foods in addition to milk when breast milk or milk formula alone are insufficient in meeting nutritional requirements, which commonly occurs between 6 and 23 months of age (World Health Organization, 2023). Food security and diet diversification are improved by climate-resilient, less labour-intensive crops such as millets (Kumar et al., 2024). Along with maize and sorghum, millets are small, seeded cereals categorized  as secondary seeds (Amadou et al., 2022). Major millet types grown in Asian and African countries include   pearl millet , finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, kodo millet, little millet, barnyard millet and sorghum. Finger millet is widely grown and used as food in different states of India, such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Choudhary et al., 2025; Mukherjee et al., 2025).  Non-starchy polysaccharide dietary fibers in finger millet provides a beneficial effect on gut microflora. It consists of a higher amount of insoluble fibers than soluble fibers. The proteins in finger millets are hypoallergenic and gluten-free. They are rich in indispensable amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, which are essential for the  synthesis of taurine and glutathione, contributing to the antioxidant defense of infants’ immature antioxidant system. It also contains phenolic compounds such as tannins, phytic acid and is rich in calcium and potassium (Malleshi et al., 2026; Mohamed et al., 2023;  Beretta et al., 2025).
       
While finger millet has been used traditionally in south India as a fermented product-“koozh”, in recent times, it has been incorporated in modern food system through formulation of baked products like composite flour biscuits, composite bread,  flour muffins, cakes, extruded products like noodles, pasta and weaning food premix, porridge, functional beverages and symbiotic beverages (Kalsi et al., 2023; Mythrayee and Pavithra, 2017). In southern India, finger millet is recommended as a weaning food for infants above 6 months of age due to its high nutritional content, good protein digestibility and rich micronutrient composition (Shirsat, 2020). Finger millet is commonly used in weaning foods in the form of germinated flour or overnight-soaked milk extract and its malting is widely applied in the development of functional products such as infant foods and dairy-based beverages (Das, 2023). The germination process is associated with decreased swelling capacity due to amylases breaking down hydrogen atoms and proteases hydrolysing complex proteins into free amino acids and short peptides. This swelling capacity is beneficial for easier gastrointestinal digestion, especially in infants (Rajkumar et al., 2024). Conventional finger millet processing of germination and milk extraction is time-consuming and labour-intensive, with a short shelf life of the end product. (Mundassery et al., 2024).
       
Spray drying technology is the accepted method of drying food products as it produces fine particles at a low cost. Food industries extensively use this technology as the time for heat exposure is less (Kabeer et al., 2023). Instant powders are made by removing most of the moisture from the raw material, a method developed for easy reconstitution. Powdered premixes, with their high formulation flexibility, simple standardization, extended and convenient storage stability and better portability, hold a prominent place in the contemporary food industry and have experienced rapid growth. Driven by modern fast-paced lifestyles, powdered premixed exhibits a core quality attribute valued by consumers. The core processing technologies in manufacturing ready-to-use powders are dehydration and grinding. Although techniques differ, the principal objective of transforming liquid or semi-liquid foods into stable dry powders aims to reduce moisture content, volume, prolong keeping quality and achieve rapid rehydration (Jiang et al., 2025). Optimization of spray drying conditions is essential in the production, because process parameters directly influence powder recovery, moisture content, particle stability, nutrient retention and shelf-life characteristics (Fithri et al., 2025). Modern technology, such as spray drying, reduces thermal deterioration while maintaining bioactive compounds, which is especially advantageous for heat-sensitive foods. In contrast to conventional techniques, spray drying enables homogeneous particle production and regulated processing, which makes it appropriate for creating nutrient-dense, ready-to-cook foods, the critical 5% limit for dry products, thereby maintaining chemical stability (Fournaise et al., 2020).
       
The primary goal of the study was to develop a spray-dried finger millet milk powder that addresses the growing need for convenient, millet-based complementary foods suitable for contemporary homes. In order to assess the impact of processing on quality features and acceptability, the study compared freshly made finger millet milk with its spray-dried powder form using specific physicochemical, nutritional and sensory attributes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study was carried out between May 2025 and December 2025. Finger millet was sourced from organic markets in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. Finger millet grains were first sorted to remove physical impurities such as sand, stones and dust. The grains were then thoroughly washed with running water and soaked in distilled water at room temperature. Approximately 100 g of finger millet grains were steeped in 200 ml of distilled water for 6 to 8 hours. The soaked grains were ground with an additional 500 ml of water to produce a slurry, which was then filtered to extract the milk using a muslin cloth. The process of spray drying was carried out using a pilot-scale spray dryer (Labultima LU-222, India) at the National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management, Thanjavur (NIFTEM-T), India, with an inlet temperature of 150±2°C, an outlet temperature of 90±2°C and a feed rate of 1 L/h. The resulting fine powder was stored in airtight, moisture-proof pouches. All experiments to prepare finger millet milk extract and powder processing were carried out in triplicate to ensure reproducibility.
 
Physicochemical properties
 
Moisture
 
The amount of moisture in the sample was determined using the standard method specified (ISO.,712: 2009). The following formula determines the moisture content, which is calculated as a percentage (FSSAI, 2015).

 
Where:
W= Mass of the empty dish in grams.
W1= Sample mass in grams prior to drying.
W2= Sample mass in grams after drying.
 
Water activity (aw)
 
The  water  activity  of  the  finger  millet  milk  powder  that  has  been  spray  dried was analysed using a recalibrated water activity meter, following the method described (Padma et al., 2022). Samples of known weight were placed in the measurement chamber and readings were recorded from the digital display. All the experiments were carried out at room temperature (25±2°C).
 
Water absorption index (WAI)
 
The WAI of the spray-dried finger millet milk powder was determined using the method described (Sabhadinde, 2014). A powder sample of 2.5 g was agitated with 25 ml of distilled water for 1 hour and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. The wet residue was then weighed.

      
 
Water solubility index (WSI)
 
The WSI measures the percentage of spray-dried finger millet milk powder that dissolves in water, acting as an indicator of starch degradation, dextrinization and digestibility. Finger millet milk powder sample of 2.5 grams was mixed with 30 ml of distilled water in a 100 ml centrifuged tube. This is then incubated at 37°C water bath for 30 minutes and then centrifuged for 20 min at 8000 rpm. The supernatant was taken in an empty beaker of known weight and dried at room temperature as described (Padma et al., 2022). The WSI % was calculated as a percentage of dried supernatant. A higher Water Solubility Index (WSI) reflects greater solubilization of sample components, often resulting from increased processing temperatures and partial degradation of macromolecules during processing. WSI was calculated as the percentage of dry solids recovered from the supernatant after hydration and centrifugation relative to the initial sample weight.

 
Determination of gelatinization time and temperature
 
The gel formations for both fresh and spray-dried finger millet milk were determined by controlled heating. Fresh extract (100 ml) and reconstituted spray-dried extract (5 g in 100 ml water) were heated in a stainless steel bowl. The time and temperature were recorded at 1-minute intervals, with visual observations of bubble formation, viscosity changes and gel consistency to determine the onset and completion of gel formation.
 
Proximate analysis
 
Nutrient composition, including carbohydrates, protein, fat, calcium, iron and phosphorus, for both fresh finger millet milk and spray-dried finger millet milk powder was analyzed using standard procedures by (AOAC, 2005) in an NABL-accredited food testing laboratory in Chennai.
 
Organoleptic evaluation
 
Organoleptic evaluation was conducted to compare the acceptability of freshly prepared finger millet milk (FFMM) and reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM). A total of 15 untrained panel members were selected and the assessment was carried out using a 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely, 8 = liked very much, 7= like moderately, 6= liked slightly, 5= neither liked nor disliked, 4 = disliked slightly, 3 = disliked moderately, 2= disliked very much and 1= disliked extremely) to analyze the sensory attributes for colour, taste, texture and overall acceptability. The sensory evaluation study was conducted after approval was obtained from the institutional human ethics committee of MAHER (IEC Reference Number MAHER/IEC/PhD/118/APRL 25). Each panel member rated both the FFMM and the RFMM samples under identical serving conditions. The mean and standard deviation (mean±standard deviation) of the sensory scores were calculated to determine consumer preference and product acceptability. Pairwise t tests at p<0.05 were used for statistical analysis.
 
Shelf-life and microbial analysis
 
The stability of both fresh and spray-dried finger millet milk powder was analyzed under refrigeration (5°C) and ambient conditions (25°C). The parameters, pH, moisture and microbial load (aerobic plate count, coliforms, yeast and mold) were included in accordance with the ISO standards. The total plate count, coliform count and the yeast and mold count were determined according to ISO 4833-1 (2013) (Idsariyaporn et al., 2026). Shelf life was determined on the basis of an acceptable sensory score (≥4) and microbial limits (APC <104 CFU/g) based on testing by NABL-accredited food testing laboratory in Chennai.
 
Statistical analysis
 
Every experiment was carried out in triplicate. The mean± standard deviation was used to express the data and analyzed using microsoft excel 2010. Using Open API software, one-way analysis of Independent sample t-tests was used to compare the sensory attributes between the two groups  to evaluate the statistical significance of the formulations; findings were presented as percentages when appropriate.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Moisture and water activity (aw)
 
The moisture content and water activity (aw) for the samples were analyzed. Fresh finger millet milk contained 87.5% moisture, while the spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited a significantly reduced moisture content of 4%. The water activity  of the spray-dried finger millet milk powder was 0.569. The low moisture level, together with reduced water activity, indicated enhanced microbiological stability and improved storage suitability of the spray-dried powder.
 
Water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index (WSI)
 
The spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited the index of water absorption (WAI) of 161.7% and the index of water solubility (WSI) of 4.24%. The relatively low WSI may be attributed to the absence of maltodextrin as a carrier agent during spray drying. In addition, finger millet contains considerable amounts of starch and dietary fiber, which can restrict solubilization due to the presence of an intact starch matrix. These compositional characteristics influence the hydration and solubility behaviour of the powder, resulting in moderate water-binding capacity and lower solubility of soluble solids, as also reported by Singh et al., (2025).
 
Gelatinization behaviour
 
Starch, being the major component of finger millet, has an important role in the development of products, their processing behaviour in terms of gelatinization and their physiology in terms of digestion, absorption and excretion.  Physical and chemical modification of starch enhances its functional characteristics, enabling its application as a thickening, coating, gelling, adhesive, bulking and water-binding agent in food systems (Compart et al., 2023). The results of the gelatinization time and temperature of fresh and reconstituted finger millet milk are shown in Table 1. Fresh extract required up to 5 minutes at 85°C for complete gel formation, whereas the reconstituted finger millet milk achieved complete gelatinization within 2 minutes at 72°C, indicating partial gelatinization during the spray drying process. Cereals, roots and tubers are very good sources of starch (Deepika et al., 2024).  Nearly 70% of the starch is dry weight composed of the two polysaccharides, Amylose and Amylopectin. Spray drying alters starch crystallinity, improving its solubility and rehydration (Yang et al., 2025).

Table 1: Comparison of gelatinization time and temperature for fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk.


 
Proximate analysis
 
Table 2 indicates the proximate composition of fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk (30 g in 100 ml of water). The energy content of the reconstituted finger millet milk was 114.9 kcal, which was notably higher than that of the fresh extract, which was 66.2 kcal per 100 ml, possibly due to the concentration of nutrients through the spray drying process, rather than an increase in nutrient content. A similar trend was observed for carbohydrates, which increased from 14.64 g in the fresh extract to 26.46 g in the reconstituted milk. The protein content also showed an increase from 1.06 g to 1.65 g per 100 ml after spray drying and reconstitution. However, it is also important to note that spray drying may lead to partial nutrient losses, particularly in heat-sensitive components, after exposure to high temperatures and oxidation (Javed et al., 2018). This is evident in the slight reduction in fat content, from 0.38g to 0.27g, which may be attributed to lipid oxidation or processing losses. Calcium content of 100 ml fresh finger millet milk was 54.6 mg, while the reconstituted milk had 80.7 mg. The iron content also showed a similar trend of 0.95 mg in fresh milk and 1.94 mg in reconstituted milk, which can be explained by the relative concentration of minerals in the spray drying process.

Table 2: Proximate analysis of fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk.


       
The best method to preserve the nutrients and enhance shelf life is the drying technique. Ragi is rich in micronutrients. Hence, it is necessary to preserve or retain these micronutrients and enhance eating quality (Kabeer et al., 2023). Overall, the results indicate that spray drying is effective in preserving nutrients, although careful optimization is required to minimize nutrient degradation in accordance with the findings reported by Shubhashish et al., (2025). Similar to the optimization approach used in functional goat milk powder production by Fithri et al., (2025), controlling spray drying variables can help minimize processing-related losses and improve the physicochemical quality of finger millet powder.
 
Sensory evaluation
 
The information in Table 3 indicates that the panel members found the reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM) to be more palatable than the fresh finger millet milk (FFMM). RFMM’s color and appearance were significantly better (8.2±0.67) than FFMM’s (7.4±0.63), indicating that the spray drying method improved the reconstituted products’ similarity and decreased their turbidity. The smell of RFMM (7.9±0.70) was marginally better than FFMM (7.6±0.91), indicating better retention of aroma compounds during processing. Taste scores remained the same for both samples (7.6±0.72 for FFMM and 7.6±0.81 for RFMM), confirming that spray drying did not negatively impact the natural flavour profile of the product. RFMM scored higher (8.3±0.72) than FFMM (7.3±0.89) in consistency, indicating better solubility and smoothness.

Table 3: Sensory evaluations of fresh finger millet milk (FFMM) and reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM).


       
Consequently, RFMM’s overall acceptability (8.2±0.56) was significantly higher than FFMM’s (7.3±0.61), indicating consumer preference for the reconstituted milk.
       
Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the sensory attributes between the two groups. Statistical analysis revealed that the data were normally distributed. The differences were statistically significant in terms of colour, consistency and overall acceptability.
 
Shelf life and microbial analysis
 
Table 4 shows the results of a comparative analysis of the freshly prepared finger millet milk and the spray-dried finger millet milk powder, which revealed significant differences in terms of the shelf-life stability, sensory quality and microbial load. The liquid extract, stored under refrigeration at 5°C, maintained acceptable sensory and microbial quality for up to three days, after which noticeable deterioration was observed. Scores for sensory characteristics such as appearance, taste, odour and overall acceptability dropped from 5 (extremely good) on the first day to 2 (bad) on the fifth day, indicating spoilage. The  pH value decreased from 6.78 on the 1st day to 4.93 on the 5th day, reflecting increased acidity due to microbial activity. Microbiologically, yeast and mold counts increased from 80 to 290 CFU/g, while the aerobic plate count (APC) rose from 4800 CFU/g to 16000 CFU/g by day 5, exceeding acceptable limits after three days.

Table 4: Comparison of the shelf life of fresh finger millet milk and Spray dried finger millet milk powder.


       
On the other hand, the spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited significantly enhanced stability. The product retained good sensory qualities throughout 50 days of storage at room temperature, indicating the effectiveness of spray-dried powder in preserving physical and sensory attributes. The moisture content increased from 4% on day 1 to 10% on the 50th day.  Over the storage period, the powder maintained microbiological safety and showed no rapid spoilage. The spray-dried finger millet milk powder demonstrated shelf stability for up to 50 days under ambient storage conditions while maintaining acceptable sensory and microbiological quality. The aerobic plate count (APC) increased marginally from 240 CFU/g to 1200 CFU/g, whereas yeast, mold and coliform counts remained below detectable or acceptable limits (<10 CFU/g). These results indicate that spray drying effectively improves microbiological stability and supports the suitability of the product for extended storage and wider distribution.

CONCLUSION

The current study showed that finger millet (Eleusine coracana) milk may be effectively spray dried into a simple and stable powder that can be used in supplemental food applications. The developed spray-dried powder exhibited low moisture content and water activity, contributing to improved microbial safety and storage stability. Importantly, this preliminary study carried out the spray drying process without the use of maltodextrin or any other permitted additives and preservatives to check the feasibility of producing a clean-labeled product using only finger millet milk. Functional characteristics such as water absorption and solubility indices indicated satisfactory reconstitution properties, while the reduced gelatinization time suggested partial pre-gelatinization during the spray drying process. Nutritional analysis verified that vital nutrients were retained, while sensory analysis showed that the product was acceptable to the consumer. In contrast to the poor stability of fresh finger millet milk, shelf life experiments also revealed that the spray-dried powder remained stable for up to 50 days under ambient storage conditions. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of spray drying as an effective processing strategy for developing shelf-stable, millet-based complementary food products. Such value-added processing approaches may contribute to improved utilization of nutrient-rich millets and support the development of convenient cereal-based foods for modern dietary needs. Future research should focus on optimizing processing parameters and extending shelf life through the incorporation of permitted and approved preservatives, along with evaluating long-term nutritional quality and broader consumer acceptance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude to the panel members for sensory evaluation.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Author contributions
 
Yasmin Fathimaa: Experimental design, analysis and writing original draft. Tamil Malar: Review of experimental design, data analysis and writing. Pavithra Amritkumar: Supervision, data curation, review and editing.
 
Informed consent
 
The sensory evaluation component of this study was conducted using voluntary adult participants. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Human Ethics Committee of MAHER (IEC Reference Number MAHER/IEC/PhD/118/APRL 25).
       
All procedures were performed in accordance with institutional guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to inclusion in the study. No infants or vulnerable people were involved.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Spray-dried Finger Millet Milk Powder: Quality and Shelf-life Evaluation

    A
    A. Yasmin Fathimaa1
    0000-0002-0322-6422
    S
    S. Tamil Malar1
    0009-0008-7551-5929
    P
    Pavithra Amritkumar2,3,*
    0000-0002-5913-6397
    1Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Chennai-600 078, Tamil Nadu, India.
    2Department of Microbiology, Meenakshi Ammal Dental College and Hospital, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Maduravoyal, Chennai-600 095, Tamil Nadu, India.
    3Department of Research, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, Chennai-600 078, Tamil Nadu, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a nutrient-dense cereal traditionally used in South Indian households as complementary foods due to its high content of dietary fiber, iron, calcium and essential amino acids. However, conventional preparation methods are labour-intensive, time-consuming and offer limited shelf stability, restricting their regular use in modern households. The present study aimed to develop a convenient spray-dried finger millet milk powder inspired by traditional formulations and to evaluate its physicochemical, nutritional, sensory and storage stability characteristics.

    Methods: Finger millet grains were processed to obtain milk, which was subsequently converted into powder utilizing the spray drying technique. The developed product was evaluated for its physicochemical properties, including moisture, water activity, water absorption index, water solubility index, gelatinization time and temperature. Nutritional analysis was determined using standard AOAC methods. A nine-point hedonic scale was used for sensory evaluation and shelf stability was assessed through physical, chemical and microbial analyses under controlled storage condition.

    Result: The powder that was spray dried showed moisture content of 4% and water activity index of 0.569, indicating good storage stability. Functional characteristics revealed a water solubility index of 4.245 and a water absorption index of 161.7%. Compared to fresh extract, the powder gelatinized more quickly while retaining vital nutrients. Studies on shelf life showed stability up to 50 days in ambient conditions and sensory evaluation revealed sensory acceptance. These findings suggest that spray drying can effectively produce a stable, convenient and nutrient-rich finger millet milk powder suitable for modern lifestyles.

    INTRODUCTION

    According to the world health organization, complementary feeding is a  process of providing  foods in addition to milk when breast milk or milk formula alone are insufficient in meeting nutritional requirements, which commonly occurs between 6 and 23 months of age (World Health Organization, 2023). Food security and diet diversification are improved by climate-resilient, less labour-intensive crops such as millets (Kumar et al., 2024). Along with maize and sorghum, millets are small, seeded cereals categorized  as secondary seeds (Amadou et al., 2022). Major millet types grown in Asian and African countries include   pearl millet , finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, kodo millet, little millet, barnyard millet and sorghum. Finger millet is widely grown and used as food in different states of India, such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Choudhary et al., 2025; Mukherjee et al., 2025).  Non-starchy polysaccharide dietary fibers in finger millet provides a beneficial effect on gut microflora. It consists of a higher amount of insoluble fibers than soluble fibers. The proteins in finger millets are hypoallergenic and gluten-free. They are rich in indispensable amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, which are essential for the  synthesis of taurine and glutathione, contributing to the antioxidant defense of infants’ immature antioxidant system. It also contains phenolic compounds such as tannins, phytic acid and is rich in calcium and potassium (Malleshi et al., 2026; Mohamed et al., 2023;  Beretta et al., 2025).
           
    While finger millet has been used traditionally in south India as a fermented product-“koozh”, in recent times, it has been incorporated in modern food system through formulation of baked products like composite flour biscuits, composite bread,  flour muffins, cakes, extruded products like noodles, pasta and weaning food premix, porridge, functional beverages and symbiotic beverages (Kalsi et al., 2023; Mythrayee and Pavithra, 2017). In southern India, finger millet is recommended as a weaning food for infants above 6 months of age due to its high nutritional content, good protein digestibility and rich micronutrient composition (Shirsat, 2020). Finger millet is commonly used in weaning foods in the form of germinated flour or overnight-soaked milk extract and its malting is widely applied in the development of functional products such as infant foods and dairy-based beverages (Das, 2023). The germination process is associated with decreased swelling capacity due to amylases breaking down hydrogen atoms and proteases hydrolysing complex proteins into free amino acids and short peptides. This swelling capacity is beneficial for easier gastrointestinal digestion, especially in infants (Rajkumar et al., 2024). Conventional finger millet processing of germination and milk extraction is time-consuming and labour-intensive, with a short shelf life of the end product. (Mundassery et al., 2024).
           
    Spray drying technology is the accepted method of drying food products as it produces fine particles at a low cost. Food industries extensively use this technology as the time for heat exposure is less (Kabeer et al., 2023). Instant powders are made by removing most of the moisture from the raw material, a method developed for easy reconstitution. Powdered premixes, with their high formulation flexibility, simple standardization, extended and convenient storage stability and better portability, hold a prominent place in the contemporary food industry and have experienced rapid growth. Driven by modern fast-paced lifestyles, powdered premixed exhibits a core quality attribute valued by consumers. The core processing technologies in manufacturing ready-to-use powders are dehydration and grinding. Although techniques differ, the principal objective of transforming liquid or semi-liquid foods into stable dry powders aims to reduce moisture content, volume, prolong keeping quality and achieve rapid rehydration (Jiang et al., 2025). Optimization of spray drying conditions is essential in the production, because process parameters directly influence powder recovery, moisture content, particle stability, nutrient retention and shelf-life characteristics (Fithri et al., 2025). Modern technology, such as spray drying, reduces thermal deterioration while maintaining bioactive compounds, which is especially advantageous for heat-sensitive foods. In contrast to conventional techniques, spray drying enables homogeneous particle production and regulated processing, which makes it appropriate for creating nutrient-dense, ready-to-cook foods, the critical 5% limit for dry products, thereby maintaining chemical stability (Fournaise et al., 2020).
           
    The primary goal of the study was to develop a spray-dried finger millet milk powder that addresses the growing need for convenient, millet-based complementary foods suitable for contemporary homes. In order to assess the impact of processing on quality features and acceptability, the study compared freshly made finger millet milk with its spray-dried powder form using specific physicochemical, nutritional and sensory attributes.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The present study was carried out between May 2025 and December 2025. Finger millet was sourced from organic markets in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. Finger millet grains were first sorted to remove physical impurities such as sand, stones and dust. The grains were then thoroughly washed with running water and soaked in distilled water at room temperature. Approximately 100 g of finger millet grains were steeped in 200 ml of distilled water for 6 to 8 hours. The soaked grains were ground with an additional 500 ml of water to produce a slurry, which was then filtered to extract the milk using a muslin cloth. The process of spray drying was carried out using a pilot-scale spray dryer (Labultima LU-222, India) at the National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management, Thanjavur (NIFTEM-T), India, with an inlet temperature of 150±2°C, an outlet temperature of 90±2°C and a feed rate of 1 L/h. The resulting fine powder was stored in airtight, moisture-proof pouches. All experiments to prepare finger millet milk extract and powder processing were carried out in triplicate to ensure reproducibility.
     
    Physicochemical properties
     
    Moisture
     
    The amount of moisture in the sample was determined using the standard method specified (ISO.,712: 2009). The following formula determines the moisture content, which is calculated as a percentage (FSSAI, 2015).

     
    Where:
    W= Mass of the empty dish in grams.
    W1= Sample mass in grams prior to drying.
    W2= Sample mass in grams after drying.
     
    Water activity (aw)
     
    The  water  activity  of  the  finger  millet  milk  powder  that  has  been  spray  dried was analysed using a recalibrated water activity meter, following the method described (Padma et al., 2022). Samples of known weight were placed in the measurement chamber and readings were recorded from the digital display. All the experiments were carried out at room temperature (25±2°C).
     
    Water absorption index (WAI)
     
    The WAI of the spray-dried finger millet milk powder was determined using the method described (Sabhadinde, 2014). A powder sample of 2.5 g was agitated with 25 ml of distilled water for 1 hour and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. The wet residue was then weighed.

          
     
    Water solubility index (WSI)
     
    The WSI measures the percentage of spray-dried finger millet milk powder that dissolves in water, acting as an indicator of starch degradation, dextrinization and digestibility. Finger millet milk powder sample of 2.5 grams was mixed with 30 ml of distilled water in a 100 ml centrifuged tube. This is then incubated at 37°C water bath for 30 minutes and then centrifuged for 20 min at 8000 rpm. The supernatant was taken in an empty beaker of known weight and dried at room temperature as described (Padma et al., 2022). The WSI % was calculated as a percentage of dried supernatant. A higher Water Solubility Index (WSI) reflects greater solubilization of sample components, often resulting from increased processing temperatures and partial degradation of macromolecules during processing. WSI was calculated as the percentage of dry solids recovered from the supernatant after hydration and centrifugation relative to the initial sample weight.

     
    Determination of gelatinization time and temperature
     
    The gel formations for both fresh and spray-dried finger millet milk were determined by controlled heating. Fresh extract (100 ml) and reconstituted spray-dried extract (5 g in 100 ml water) were heated in a stainless steel bowl. The time and temperature were recorded at 1-minute intervals, with visual observations of bubble formation, viscosity changes and gel consistency to determine the onset and completion of gel formation.
     
    Proximate analysis
     
    Nutrient composition, including carbohydrates, protein, fat, calcium, iron and phosphorus, for both fresh finger millet milk and spray-dried finger millet milk powder was analyzed using standard procedures by (AOAC, 2005) in an NABL-accredited food testing laboratory in Chennai.
     
    Organoleptic evaluation
     
    Organoleptic evaluation was conducted to compare the acceptability of freshly prepared finger millet milk (FFMM) and reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM). A total of 15 untrained panel members were selected and the assessment was carried out using a 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely, 8 = liked very much, 7= like moderately, 6= liked slightly, 5= neither liked nor disliked, 4 = disliked slightly, 3 = disliked moderately, 2= disliked very much and 1= disliked extremely) to analyze the sensory attributes for colour, taste, texture and overall acceptability. The sensory evaluation study was conducted after approval was obtained from the institutional human ethics committee of MAHER (IEC Reference Number MAHER/IEC/PhD/118/APRL 25). Each panel member rated both the FFMM and the RFMM samples under identical serving conditions. The mean and standard deviation (mean±standard deviation) of the sensory scores were calculated to determine consumer preference and product acceptability. Pairwise t tests at p<0.05 were used for statistical analysis.
     
    Shelf-life and microbial analysis
     
    The stability of both fresh and spray-dried finger millet milk powder was analyzed under refrigeration (5°C) and ambient conditions (25°C). The parameters, pH, moisture and microbial load (aerobic plate count, coliforms, yeast and mold) were included in accordance with the ISO standards. The total plate count, coliform count and the yeast and mold count were determined according to ISO 4833-1 (2013) (Idsariyaporn et al., 2026). Shelf life was determined on the basis of an acceptable sensory score (≥4) and microbial limits (APC <104 CFU/g) based on testing by NABL-accredited food testing laboratory in Chennai.
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    Every experiment was carried out in triplicate. The mean± standard deviation was used to express the data and analyzed using microsoft excel 2010. Using Open API software, one-way analysis of Independent sample t-tests was used to compare the sensory attributes between the two groups  to evaluate the statistical significance of the formulations; findings were presented as percentages when appropriate.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Moisture and water activity (aw)
     
    The moisture content and water activity (aw) for the samples were analyzed. Fresh finger millet milk contained 87.5% moisture, while the spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited a significantly reduced moisture content of 4%. The water activity  of the spray-dried finger millet milk powder was 0.569. The low moisture level, together with reduced water activity, indicated enhanced microbiological stability and improved storage suitability of the spray-dried powder.
     
    Water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index (WSI)
     
    The spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited the index of water absorption (WAI) of 161.7% and the index of water solubility (WSI) of 4.24%. The relatively low WSI may be attributed to the absence of maltodextrin as a carrier agent during spray drying. In addition, finger millet contains considerable amounts of starch and dietary fiber, which can restrict solubilization due to the presence of an intact starch matrix. These compositional characteristics influence the hydration and solubility behaviour of the powder, resulting in moderate water-binding capacity and lower solubility of soluble solids, as also reported by Singh et al., (2025).
     
    Gelatinization behaviour
     
    Starch, being the major component of finger millet, has an important role in the development of products, their processing behaviour in terms of gelatinization and their physiology in terms of digestion, absorption and excretion.  Physical and chemical modification of starch enhances its functional characteristics, enabling its application as a thickening, coating, gelling, adhesive, bulking and water-binding agent in food systems (Compart et al., 2023). The results of the gelatinization time and temperature of fresh and reconstituted finger millet milk are shown in Table 1. Fresh extract required up to 5 minutes at 85°C for complete gel formation, whereas the reconstituted finger millet milk achieved complete gelatinization within 2 minutes at 72°C, indicating partial gelatinization during the spray drying process. Cereals, roots and tubers are very good sources of starch (Deepika et al., 2024).  Nearly 70% of the starch is dry weight composed of the two polysaccharides, Amylose and Amylopectin. Spray drying alters starch crystallinity, improving its solubility and rehydration (Yang et al., 2025).

    Table 1: Comparison of gelatinization time and temperature for fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk.


     
    Proximate analysis
     
    Table 2 indicates the proximate composition of fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk (30 g in 100 ml of water). The energy content of the reconstituted finger millet milk was 114.9 kcal, which was notably higher than that of the fresh extract, which was 66.2 kcal per 100 ml, possibly due to the concentration of nutrients through the spray drying process, rather than an increase in nutrient content. A similar trend was observed for carbohydrates, which increased from 14.64 g in the fresh extract to 26.46 g in the reconstituted milk. The protein content also showed an increase from 1.06 g to 1.65 g per 100 ml after spray drying and reconstitution. However, it is also important to note that spray drying may lead to partial nutrient losses, particularly in heat-sensitive components, after exposure to high temperatures and oxidation (Javed et al., 2018). This is evident in the slight reduction in fat content, from 0.38g to 0.27g, which may be attributed to lipid oxidation or processing losses. Calcium content of 100 ml fresh finger millet milk was 54.6 mg, while the reconstituted milk had 80.7 mg. The iron content also showed a similar trend of 0.95 mg in fresh milk and 1.94 mg in reconstituted milk, which can be explained by the relative concentration of minerals in the spray drying process.

    Table 2: Proximate analysis of fresh finger millet milk and reconstituted finger millet milk.


           
    The best method to preserve the nutrients and enhance shelf life is the drying technique. Ragi is rich in micronutrients. Hence, it is necessary to preserve or retain these micronutrients and enhance eating quality (Kabeer et al., 2023). Overall, the results indicate that spray drying is effective in preserving nutrients, although careful optimization is required to minimize nutrient degradation in accordance with the findings reported by Shubhashish et al., (2025). Similar to the optimization approach used in functional goat milk powder production by Fithri et al., (2025), controlling spray drying variables can help minimize processing-related losses and improve the physicochemical quality of finger millet powder.
     
    Sensory evaluation
     
    The information in Table 3 indicates that the panel members found the reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM) to be more palatable than the fresh finger millet milk (FFMM). RFMM’s color and appearance were significantly better (8.2±0.67) than FFMM’s (7.4±0.63), indicating that the spray drying method improved the reconstituted products’ similarity and decreased their turbidity. The smell of RFMM (7.9±0.70) was marginally better than FFMM (7.6±0.91), indicating better retention of aroma compounds during processing. Taste scores remained the same for both samples (7.6±0.72 for FFMM and 7.6±0.81 for RFMM), confirming that spray drying did not negatively impact the natural flavour profile of the product. RFMM scored higher (8.3±0.72) than FFMM (7.3±0.89) in consistency, indicating better solubility and smoothness.

    Table 3: Sensory evaluations of fresh finger millet milk (FFMM) and reconstituted finger millet milk (RFMM).


           
    Consequently, RFMM’s overall acceptability (8.2±0.56) was significantly higher than FFMM’s (7.3±0.61), indicating consumer preference for the reconstituted milk.
           
    Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the sensory attributes between the two groups. Statistical analysis revealed that the data were normally distributed. The differences were statistically significant in terms of colour, consistency and overall acceptability.
     
    Shelf life and microbial analysis
     
    Table 4 shows the results of a comparative analysis of the freshly prepared finger millet milk and the spray-dried finger millet milk powder, which revealed significant differences in terms of the shelf-life stability, sensory quality and microbial load. The liquid extract, stored under refrigeration at 5°C, maintained acceptable sensory and microbial quality for up to three days, after which noticeable deterioration was observed. Scores for sensory characteristics such as appearance, taste, odour and overall acceptability dropped from 5 (extremely good) on the first day to 2 (bad) on the fifth day, indicating spoilage. The  pH value decreased from 6.78 on the 1st day to 4.93 on the 5th day, reflecting increased acidity due to microbial activity. Microbiologically, yeast and mold counts increased from 80 to 290 CFU/g, while the aerobic plate count (APC) rose from 4800 CFU/g to 16000 CFU/g by day 5, exceeding acceptable limits after three days.

    Table 4: Comparison of the shelf life of fresh finger millet milk and Spray dried finger millet milk powder.


           
    On the other hand, the spray-dried finger millet milk powder exhibited significantly enhanced stability. The product retained good sensory qualities throughout 50 days of storage at room temperature, indicating the effectiveness of spray-dried powder in preserving physical and sensory attributes. The moisture content increased from 4% on day 1 to 10% on the 50th day.  Over the storage period, the powder maintained microbiological safety and showed no rapid spoilage. The spray-dried finger millet milk powder demonstrated shelf stability for up to 50 days under ambient storage conditions while maintaining acceptable sensory and microbiological quality. The aerobic plate count (APC) increased marginally from 240 CFU/g to 1200 CFU/g, whereas yeast, mold and coliform counts remained below detectable or acceptable limits (<10 CFU/g). These results indicate that spray drying effectively improves microbiological stability and supports the suitability of the product for extended storage and wider distribution.

    CONCLUSION

    The current study showed that finger millet (Eleusine coracana) milk may be effectively spray dried into a simple and stable powder that can be used in supplemental food applications. The developed spray-dried powder exhibited low moisture content and water activity, contributing to improved microbial safety and storage stability. Importantly, this preliminary study carried out the spray drying process without the use of maltodextrin or any other permitted additives and preservatives to check the feasibility of producing a clean-labeled product using only finger millet milk. Functional characteristics such as water absorption and solubility indices indicated satisfactory reconstitution properties, while the reduced gelatinization time suggested partial pre-gelatinization during the spray drying process. Nutritional analysis verified that vital nutrients were retained, while sensory analysis showed that the product was acceptable to the consumer. In contrast to the poor stability of fresh finger millet milk, shelf life experiments also revealed that the spray-dried powder remained stable for up to 50 days under ambient storage conditions. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of spray drying as an effective processing strategy for developing shelf-stable, millet-based complementary food products. Such value-added processing approaches may contribute to improved utilization of nutrient-rich millets and support the development of convenient cereal-based foods for modern dietary needs. Future research should focus on optimizing processing parameters and extending shelf life through the incorporation of permitted and approved preservatives, along with evaluating long-term nutritional quality and broader consumer acceptance.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    We would like to express our gratitude to the panel members for sensory evaluation.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Author contributions
     
    Yasmin Fathimaa: Experimental design, analysis and writing original draft. Tamil Malar: Review of experimental design, data analysis and writing. Pavithra Amritkumar: Supervision, data curation, review and editing.
     
    Informed consent
     
    The sensory evaluation component of this study was conducted using voluntary adult participants. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Human Ethics Committee of MAHER (IEC Reference Number MAHER/IEC/PhD/118/APRL 25).
           
    All procedures were performed in accordance with institutional guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to inclusion in the study. No infants or vulnerable people were involved.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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