Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

ABSTRACT

Background: Banana flowers (Musa spp.) have strong potential as functional foods and nutraceuticals. They are rich in antioxidants that help prevent cell damage and contain health-promoting phenolic compounds. The study aimed to optimize microwave assisted extraction (MAE), which uses microwaves to extract bioactive compounds.

Methods: The optimization of the extraction process was done using response surface methodology (RSM). The box-behnken design was used. The extraction parameters were set at 360, 540 and 720 W; extraction time at 2, 4 and 6 min and solvent ratio at 1, 2 and 3 g/100 mL. These variables were analyzed in terms of extraction yield, total flavonoid content (TFC-mg QE/g), total phenolic content (TPC-mg GAE/g) and antioxidant capacity. Antioxidant capacity was measured by DPPH and ABTS assays, which assess free radical scavenging. Twenty experiments were performed. Six center points evaluated model adequacy.

Result: Extraction yields ranged from 18.78% to 24.21%, TPC was 46.26-53.83 mg GAE/g and TFC was 18.87-24.05 mg QE/g. Antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH (59.64-73.07 mg TE/g) and ABTS (65.53-74.37 mg TE/g) assays, was most affected by microwave power and time, as shown by analysis of variance. Optimal extraction was at 617 W for 5.67 min and with 1.98 g/100 mL solvent. The highest recoveries of phenolics and flavonoids were achieved at 540 W, 6 min and 2 g/100 mL solvent. These findings demonstrate that optimized microwave-assisted extraction is an efficient and rapid technique for maximizing the recovery of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flower, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional extraction methods.

INTRODUCTION

The scientific community has begun to recognize the growing importance of banana plants (Musa spp.) and the value of banana flowers (Joshi and Srivastava, 2024). Banana flowers contain a wealth of bioactive phytochemicals, especially those with phenolic and flavonoid structures, with documented antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antidiabetic properties (Kukreja and Sharma, 2024; Zhang et al., 2023; Jain et al., 2025; Sun et al., 2024). These effects are due to free-radical scavenging, metal ion chelation and modulation of enzymes associated with oxidative stress (Oirdi 2024; Tazeddinova et al., 2022). Therefore, interest in banana flowers has increased significantly, as they can be employed in functional foods, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals (Oktaviani et al., 2025; Senevirathna and Karim, 2024; Kiribhaga et al., 2022).
       
In the literature, the bioactive constituents of banana flowers have traditionally been extracted using conventional methods, such as maceration, Soxhlet extraction and hydrodistillation (Sheu et al., 2025; Wani and Dhanya, 2025). These methods are time-consuming, solvent-intensive and may thermally degrade some thermolabile constituents (Ahmed et al., 2025). Therefore, developing environmentally friendly and sustainable extraction methods is of great importance (Palos-Hernández et al., 2024; Plyduang et al., 2026). Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) represents a novel extraction technique with considerable promise and microwave applications have shown effectiveness in banana-based food systems (Musa et al., 2024).
       
Microwave energy heats polar molecules inside plant cells, generating steam. This steam causes rupture of plant cell walls (Samanta et al., 2025; Kumar and Gomez, 2024; Wang and Weller, 2006). MAE is more efficient than traditional methods in terms of time and solvent consumption, retains more sensitive phytochemicals and is more effective in capturing target phytochemicals (Maaiden et al., 2022; Siddique et al., 2024). The MAE yield is highly dependent on the optimization of its parameters, which can be achieved using the response surface methodology (RSM). This technique is applicable to the recovery of flavonoids and phenolics and is beneficial for functional foods and nutraceuticals (Sheu et al., 2025; Vu et al., 2019; Oktaviani et al., 2025).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh banana flowers (Musa spp) were collected from an agricultural field in Parbhani, Maharashtra, India (19.240493°N, 76.705145°E). The samples were transported to the Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India, for further processing. The inner bracts and florets were washed with distilled water and dried in a dryer at 50±2°C for 48 h. The dried material was ground into powder and sieved through a 60-mesh (250 μm) sieve. The powder was stored in airtight polyethylene bags at 4°C until further analysis. For extraction, deionized water was used as the solvent, All chemicals used in the study, including gallic acid, quercetin, DPPH, ABTS and folin-ciocalteu reagent, were of analytical grade and obtained from standard commercial suppliers (Sigma-aldrich). Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was performed using a domestic convection microwave oven (LG MC3286BLU, LG Electronics, South Korea), operating at a frequency of 2450 MHz. The use of a domestic microwave provides a cost-effective, accessible and practical approach for extraction studies, particularly in resource-limited settings. However, limitations such as non-uniform heating and limited control over temperature and pressure compared to laboratory-grade microwave systems were considered during the experimental design to ensure reliable extraction performance. A box-behnken design (BBD) type of response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimise microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of bioactive compounds from banana flower powder. Three independent variables were microwave power (X1, 360-720 W), extraction time (X2, 2-6 min) and solvent ratio (X3, 1-3 g/100 mL) and each were evaluated at three levels (-1, 0, +1). The BBD generated 20 experimental runs with centre-point replications (540 W, 4 min, 2 g/100 mL) to approximate experimental errors and confirm the model (Aquino et al., 2023). Results from the DPPH and ABTS assays were used to assess the relationships among extraction yield (%), total flavonoid content (TFC), antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity. The relation between the dependent and independent variables were assessed by second-order polynomial model.
 
Y = β0 + ΣβiXi + ΣβiiXi2 + ΣβijXiXj
 
Design-Experts software (version 13.0) was used for statistical and modelling optimization. All response variables were maximized for validation and determination of optimal predicted conditions through experimentation. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of banana flower powder was performed using a domestic convection microwave (LG MC3286BLU, LG Electronics, South Korea). For each run, 1, 2 and 3 g) of dried banana flower powder and deionized water were placed in a microwave extraction vessel (Vu et al., 2019). The extraction parameters were optimized using a box-behnken design with microwave power (360, 540 and 720 W), extraction time (2, 4 and 6 min) and solid-liquid ratio (1, 2 and 3 g/100 mL). Extracted samples were cooled to 25°C, filtered with whatman no. 1 filter paper and stored in amber bottles at 4°C until further processing.
       
Total phenolic content (TPC) was evaluated by the folin-ciocalteu method as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram (mg GAE/g) (Domínguez‐López et al., 2023). The total flavonoid content (TFC) was measured using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method, expressed as mg quercetin equivalents (mg QE/g) (Yap et al., 2023). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the DPPH and ABTS assays (Deme et al., 2021; Zeraik et al., 2016). Each experiment was conducted in triplicate and statistical analysis was performed using version 20 of SPSS, with p<0.05 considered as significant.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Box-behnken design and experimental data
 
To understand how microwave power (X1), extraction time (X2) and solvent ratio (X3) contribute to the extraction of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flower, the factors were canvassed with the use of a box-behnken design (BBD). The response yield were measured as antioxidant activity (ABTS and DPPH), total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC).
       
Twenty experimental runs (6 centre points) were carried out, In Table 1, the experimental design matrix and corresponding response values are tabulated. The extraction yield ranged from 18.78% to 24.21%, demonstrating a positive correlation with the extraction parameters. 24.21% extraction yield was achieved at 720 W microwave power, 6 min extraction time and a 3 g/100 mL solid to solvent ratio. An extraction yield of 18.78% was recorded at 360 W microwave power and 2 minutes of extraction time. Total phenolic content ranged from 46.26 mg GAE/g to 53.83 mg GAE/g. Total flavonoid range was from 18.87 mg QE/g to 24.05 mg QE/g. The highest phenolic and flavonoid content was observed at 540W, 6 min extraction time and a solvent-to-solid ratio of 2 g/100 mL.

Table 1: Box-behnken design matrix and experimental results for microwave-assisted extraction of banana flower extracts.



The data show that microwave power with longer extraction times led to more successful extraction of phenolic compounds, These results are supported by the response surface plots (Fig 1) (Bouallag et al., 2022; Guemghar et al., 2020). Antioxidant activities assayed from DPPH and ABTS were determined to be 59.64-73.07 mg TE/g and 65.53-74.37 mg TE/g, respectively.

Fig 1: Three-dimensional response surface plots illustrating the interactive effects of microwave power (360-720 W) and extraction time (2-6 min) on (A) Extraction yield (%), (B) Total phenolic content (TPC, mg GAE/g), (C) Total flavonoid content (TFC, mg QE/g), (D) DPPH radical scavenging activity (mg TE/g) and (E) ABTS radical scavenging activity (mg TE/g) of banana flower extracts.



Effect of microwave power and extraction time
 
Fig 1A to 1E demonstrate the response surface for microwave power (W) and extraction time (min) of extraction yield, TPC, TFC, DPPH and ABTS, with the centre ratio set at 2 g/100 mL. The response surface plots indicate that the extraction yield, TPC, TFC, DPPH and ABTS were all maximized at 540 W and 4-5 minutes of extraction time. We suggest this is due to rapid microwave heating of the solvent, which enhances solvent penetration and increases extraction yield (López-Salazar et al., 2023). However, if microwave power and time are extreme, bioactive compounds can be thermally degraded and quality deterioration including browning reactions may occur (Tapre and Jain, 2016), consistent with the findings of López-Salazar et al., (2023). The loss of heat-sensitive phytochemicals explains the reduction in TPC and TFC at prolonged extraction times and under high extraction conditions (Alara et al., 2023; Murugesan et al., 2023). The DPPH and ABTS data correlated with the studied phytochemicals and antioxidant activities, thereby validating the antioxidant capacity through a positive correlation with phenolic compounds (Chowdhury et al., 2024).
 
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and discussion
 
The acquired models satisfactorily described the relationship between extraction variables and corresponding responses, as demonstrated by ANOVA results (Table 2). Among all the variables, extraction time and microwave power showed the greatest significance, with approximately 30% and 25% improvements in antioxidant activity and phenolic content, respectively. In comparison, the solvent ratio had a modest effect, resulting in a 12% increase in extraction yield due to enhanced mass transfer (Myo et al., 2025). Microwave-assisted extraction enhances the recovery of bioactive compounds by enabling the release of intracellular compounds through dielectric heating, which helps to rupture cell walls of plants and accelerate the movement of target bioactive compounds inside the extraction solvent (Oktaviani et al., 2025; Sai‐Ut et al., 2023). However, excessive extraction time or microwave power can diminish the quality of heat-sensitive constituents, such as some flavonoids. Regarding the solid-to-solvent ratio, a higher ratio tends to facilitate diffusion while decreasing the concentration of some phenolic constituents in the extraction medium (Tourabi et al., 2025). Overall, the surface and contour response plots indicate a strong interaction between time and microwave power. Regarding the extraction of bioactive antioxidant constituents from banana blossoms, these were deemed the most critical factors.

Table 2: Microwave-assisted extraction of banana flower.

CONCLUSION

This study successfully optimized microwave-assisted extraction conditions for the recovery of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flowers using response surface methodology. Microwave power and extraction time were identified as the most significant factors influencing extraction efficiency. The model predicted optimal conditions at 617 W microwave power, 5.67 min extraction time and a solvent ratio of 1.98 g/100 mL. However, due to practical limitations of the domestic microwave system, the closest achievable conditions were 540 W, 6 min and 2 g/100 mL, which also yielded high recovery of phenolic and flavonoid compounds with strong antioxidant activity. These findings indicate that microwave-assisted extraction using a domestic system is a rapid and efficient method, although further studies using controlled laboratory-scale systems are recommended for improved precision.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge Lovely Professional University (LPU), Punjab, India, for providing research facilities and academic support while conducting this study.
 
Author contributions
 
Bhosle Saurabh Sushil conducted the experiments and analysed the data; Sonia Morya: Idea conceptualization, data analysis, editing and formatting.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Ahmed, S., Alsharif, K.F., Aschner, M., Alzahrani, K.J., Akkol, E.K., Türkcanoğlu, E.G. and Khan, H. (2025). A deep dive into herbal extraction: Techniques, trends and technological advancements. South African Journal of Botany. 188: 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2025.11.005.

  2. Alara, O.R., Abdurahman, N.H. and Ali, H.A. (2023). Optimization of microwave-enhanced extraction parameters to recover phenolic compounds and antioxidants from Corchorus olitorius leaves. Chemical Papers. 77(8): 4217. https:/ /doi.org/10.1007/s11696-023-02771-x.

  3. Aquino, G., Basilicata, M.G., Crescenzi, C., Vestuto, V., Salviati, E., Cerrato, M., Ciaglia, T., Sansone, F., Pepe, G. and Campiglia, P. (2023). Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of antioxidant compounds from spring onion leaves using box-behnken design. Scientific Reports. 13(1): 14923. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42303-x.

  4. Bouallag, O., Zeghichi Hamri, S., Bachir bey, M., Brahmi-Chendouh, N., Bouallag, N., Takka, M., Madani, K. and Boulekabache, L. (2022). Optimization of phenolic compounds extraction from Bellis perennis flowers and assessment for antioxidant properties. The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati Fascicle VI-Food Technology. 46(1): 125. https://doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2022.1.10.

  5. Chowdhury, A., Kumar, A.Y.N., Kumar, R., Maurya, V.K., Mahesh, M.S., Singh, A.K., Yadav, P.K. and Ghosh, M. (2024). Optimization of microwave parameters to enhance phytochemicals, antioxidants and metabolite profile of de-oiled rice bran. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4503656/v1.

  6. Deme, T., Haki, G.D., Retta, N., Woldegiorgis, A.Z.  and Geleta, M. (2021). Fatty acid profile, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) and linseed (Linum usitatissimum). Frontiers in Nutrition.  8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.674882.

  7. Domínguez‐López, I., Pérez, M. and Lamuela, R.R.M. (2023). Total (poly) phenol analysis by the Folin–Ciocalteu assay as an anti- inflammatory biomarker in biological samples. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 64(27): 10048. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2220031.

  8. Guemghar M., Remini H., Bouaoudia-Madi N., Mouhoubi K., Madani K. and Boulekbache Makhlouf, L. (2020). Phenolic compounds from artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) byproducts: Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction and enrichment of table oil. The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati Fascicle VI-Food Technology. 44(1): 193. https:/ /doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2020.1.12.

  9. Jain, P.K., Parashar, A.K. and Shrivastava, V. (2025). A review on exploring the health benefits and antioxidant properties of bioactive polyphenols. Discover Food. 5(1). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00637-7.

  10. Joshi, P. and Srivastava, A. (2024). Enhancing nutrition and value: Innovative uses of banana blossom in functional food products. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 46(4): 143. https://doi.org/10.62029/jmaps. v46i4.joshi.

  11. Kiribhaga, S., Gomez, S. and Joseph, M. (2022). Qualitative changes and flavour profile of banana (Musa spp.) wine during ageing. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR-1916. 

  12. Kumar, K. and Gomez, S. (2024). Microwave-assisted extraction of bioactives in fruits and vegetables: A comprehensive review. Journal of Food Bioactives. 41. https://doi.org/ 10.26599/jfb.2024.95028394.

  13. Kukreja, N. and Sharma, P. (2024). Composition and pharmacological benefits of banana blossom: A brief review. Agricultural Reviews. 46(5): 766-773. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2697.

  14. López-Salazar, H., Camacho Díaz, B.H., Arenas-Ocampo, M.L. and Jiménez-Aparicio, A.R. (2023). Microwave-assisted extraction of functional compounds from plants: A review. Bio Resources. 18(3). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores. 18.3.lopez-salazar.

  15. Maaiden, E.E., Bouzroud, S., Nasser, B., Moustaid, K., Mouttaqi, A.E., Ibourki, M., Boukcim, H., Hirich, A., Kouisni, L. and Kharrassi, Y.E. (2022). A comparative study between conventional and advanced extraction techniques: Pharmaceutical and cosmetic properties of plant extracts. Molecules. 27(7): 2074. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules 27072074.

  16. Murugesan, S., Maran, J.P., Venkatesan, M. and Anuf, A.R. (2023). Microwave assisted extraction of polyphenols from Pithecellobium dulce benth fruit peels and evaluation of its anticancer and antioxidant activity. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 15(2): 841. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12649-023-02183-8.

  17. Musa, A.M.A., Naufalin, R., Purbowati, I.S.M. and Handayani, I. (2024). The effect of microwave application on the drying of banana (Musa paradisiaca formatypica) flour inoculated by Cronobacter sakazakii bacteria. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 44(3): 426-434. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-420.

  18. Myo, H., Khat udomkiri, N., Sam-ang, P. and Phanumartwiwath, A. (2025). Propylene glycol-based green extraction of polyphenols from industrial hemp stems: Process optimization and bioactivity assessment. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture. 12(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s40538-025-00870-3.

  19. Oirdi, M.E. (2024). Harnessing the power of polyphenols: A new frontier in disease prevention and therapy. Pharmaceuticals.  17(6): 692. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17060692.

  20. Oktaviani, N.M.D., Harun, M.U., Oktavirina, V., Prabawati, N.B., Manikharda, M., Setyaningsih, W. and Palma, M. (2025). Ultrasound-assisted extraction of antioxidants and neuroprotective compounds from banana flowers via simplex-centroid solvent optimization. BIO Web of Conferences. 187: 3004. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/ 202518703004.

  21. Palos-Hernández, A., Gonzaléz Paramás, A.M. and Santos, B.C. (2024). Latest advances in green extraction of polyphenols from plants, foods and food by-products. Molecules. 30(1): 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010055.

  22. Plyduang, T., Monton, C. and Suksaeree, J. (2026). Sustainable green extraction approaches for herbal phytochemicals supporting environmentally friendly and climate responsive product development. Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action. 8: 100184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scca.2026. 100184.

  23. Sai‐Ut, S., Kingwascharapong, P., Mazumder, M.A.R. and Rawdkuen, S. (2023). Optimization of polyphenolic compounds from gossampinus malabarica flowers by microwave-assisted extraction technology. Future Foods. 8: 100271. https:/ /doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100271.

  24. Samanta, R.K., Chatterjee, A., Kumar, A., Mishra, R., Sahoo, S. and Kumari, M. (2025). Comparative analysis of microwave- assisted extraction and traditional extraction techniques for phytochemicals from plants. International Journal of Environmental Sciences. 3390. https://doi.org/ 10.64252/r5hzc522.

  25. Senevirathna, N. and Karim, A. (2024). Banana inflorescence as a new source of bioactive and pharmacological ingredients for food industry. Food Chemistry Advances. 5: 100814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2024.100814.

  26. Sheu, S., Su, Y. and Gavahian, M. (2025). Valorization of banana inflorescence with integrated blanching and taguchi- optimized ultrasound extraction. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops and Foods. 17(3): 161. https://doi.org/ 10.15586/qas.v17i3.1555.

  27. Siddique, F., Ali, Z., Arshad, M.S., Mubeen, K. and Ghazala, A. (2024). Exploration of novel eco-friendly techniques to utilize bioactive compounds from household food waste: Special reference to food applications. Frontiers in Food Science and Technology. 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/ frfst.2024.1388461.

  28. Sun, S., Liu, Z., Lin, M., Gao, N. and Wang, X. (2024). Polyphenols in health and food processing: antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant insights. Frontiers in Nutrition. 11: 1456730. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1456730.

  29. Tapre, A.R. and Jain, R.K. (2016). Study of inhibition of browning of clarified banana juice. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 35(2): 155-159. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.v35i2.10723.

  30. Tazeddinova, D., Rahman, M.R., Hamdan, S.B., Matin, M.M., Bin Bakri, M.K. and Rahman, M.M. (2022). Plant based polyphenol associations with protein: A prospective review. Bio Resources. 17(4): 7110-7134. Retrieved from https:// ojs.bioresources.com/index.php/BRJ/article/view/22149.

  31. Tourabi, M., Faiz, K., Ezzouggari, R., Louasté, B., Merzouki, M., Dauelbait, M., Bourhia, M., Almaary, K. S., Siddique, F., Lyoussi, B. and Derwich, E. (2025). Optimization of extraction process and solvent polarities to enhance the recovery of phytochemical compounds, nutritional content and biofunctional properties of Mentha longifolia L. extracts. Bioresources and Bioprocessing. 12(1): 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-025-00859-8.

  32. Vu, H.T., Scarlett, C.J. and Vuong, Q.V. (2019). Maximising recovery of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties from banana peel using microwave assisted extraction and water. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 56(3): 1360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03610-2.

  33. Wang, L. and Weller, C.L. (2006). Recent advances in extraction of nutraceuticals from plants. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 17(6): 300-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.tifs.2005.12.004.

  34. Wani, K.M. and Dhanya, M. (2025). Unlocking the potential of banana peel bioactives: Extraction methods, benefits and industrial  applications. Discover Food. 5(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s44187-025-00276-y.

  35. Yap, V.L., Tan, L.F., Rajagopal, M., Wiart, C., Selvaraja, M., Leong, M.Y. and Tan, P.L. (2023). Evaluation of phytochemicals and antioxidant potential of a new polyherbal formulation TC-16: Additive, synergistic or antagonistic? BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 23(1). https:/ /doi.org/10.1186/s12906-023-03921-0.

  36. Zeraik, M.L., Queiroz, E.F., Marcourt, L., Ciclet, O., Castro Gamboa, I., Silva, D.H.S., Cuendet, M., Bolzani, V.S. and Wolfender, J. (2016). Antioxidants, quinone reductase inducers and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors from Spondias tuberosa fruits. Journal of Functional Foods. 21: 396. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.12.009.

  37. Zhang, X., Cao, G., Bi, Y., Liu, X., Yin, H., Zuo, J.F., Xu, W., Li, H., He, S. and Zhou, X. (2023). Comprehensive analysis of 34 edible flowers by the determination of nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity planted in yunnan province China. Molecules. 28(13): 5260. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules28135260.
Published In
Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
48
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Banana flowers (Musa spp.) have strong potential as functional foods and nutraceuticals. They are rich in antioxidants that help prevent cell damage and contain health-promoting phenolic compounds. The study aimed to optimize microwave assisted extraction (MAE), which uses microwaves to extract bioactive compounds.

    Methods: The optimization of the extraction process was done using response surface methodology (RSM). The box-behnken design was used. The extraction parameters were set at 360, 540 and 720 W; extraction time at 2, 4 and 6 min and solvent ratio at 1, 2 and 3 g/100 mL. These variables were analyzed in terms of extraction yield, total flavonoid content (TFC-mg QE/g), total phenolic content (TPC-mg GAE/g) and antioxidant capacity. Antioxidant capacity was measured by DPPH and ABTS assays, which assess free radical scavenging. Twenty experiments were performed. Six center points evaluated model adequacy.

    Result: Extraction yields ranged from 18.78% to 24.21%, TPC was 46.26-53.83 mg GAE/g and TFC was 18.87-24.05 mg QE/g. Antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH (59.64-73.07 mg TE/g) and ABTS (65.53-74.37 mg TE/g) assays, was most affected by microwave power and time, as shown by analysis of variance. Optimal extraction was at 617 W for 5.67 min and with 1.98 g/100 mL solvent. The highest recoveries of phenolics and flavonoids were achieved at 540 W, 6 min and 2 g/100 mL solvent. These findings demonstrate that optimized microwave-assisted extraction is an efficient and rapid technique for maximizing the recovery of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flower, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional extraction methods.

    INTRODUCTION

    The scientific community has begun to recognize the growing importance of banana plants (Musa spp.) and the value of banana flowers (Joshi and Srivastava, 2024). Banana flowers contain a wealth of bioactive phytochemicals, especially those with phenolic and flavonoid structures, with documented antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antidiabetic properties (Kukreja and Sharma, 2024; Zhang et al., 2023; Jain et al., 2025; Sun et al., 2024). These effects are due to free-radical scavenging, metal ion chelation and modulation of enzymes associated with oxidative stress (Oirdi 2024; Tazeddinova et al., 2022). Therefore, interest in banana flowers has increased significantly, as they can be employed in functional foods, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals (Oktaviani et al., 2025; Senevirathna and Karim, 2024; Kiribhaga et al., 2022).
           
    In the literature, the bioactive constituents of banana flowers have traditionally been extracted using conventional methods, such as maceration, Soxhlet extraction and hydrodistillation (Sheu et al., 2025; Wani and Dhanya, 2025). These methods are time-consuming, solvent-intensive and may thermally degrade some thermolabile constituents (Ahmed et al., 2025). Therefore, developing environmentally friendly and sustainable extraction methods is of great importance (Palos-Hernández et al., 2024; Plyduang et al., 2026). Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) represents a novel extraction technique with considerable promise and microwave applications have shown effectiveness in banana-based food systems (Musa et al., 2024).
           
    Microwave energy heats polar molecules inside plant cells, generating steam. This steam causes rupture of plant cell walls (Samanta et al., 2025; Kumar and Gomez, 2024; Wang and Weller, 2006). MAE is more efficient than traditional methods in terms of time and solvent consumption, retains more sensitive phytochemicals and is more effective in capturing target phytochemicals (Maaiden et al., 2022; Siddique et al., 2024). The MAE yield is highly dependent on the optimization of its parameters, which can be achieved using the response surface methodology (RSM). This technique is applicable to the recovery of flavonoids and phenolics and is beneficial for functional foods and nutraceuticals (Sheu et al., 2025; Vu et al., 2019; Oktaviani et al., 2025).

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Fresh banana flowers (Musa spp) were collected from an agricultural field in Parbhani, Maharashtra, India (19.240493°N, 76.705145°E). The samples were transported to the Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India, for further processing. The inner bracts and florets were washed with distilled water and dried in a dryer at 50±2°C for 48 h. The dried material was ground into powder and sieved through a 60-mesh (250 μm) sieve. The powder was stored in airtight polyethylene bags at 4°C until further analysis. For extraction, deionized water was used as the solvent, All chemicals used in the study, including gallic acid, quercetin, DPPH, ABTS and folin-ciocalteu reagent, were of analytical grade and obtained from standard commercial suppliers (Sigma-aldrich). Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was performed using a domestic convection microwave oven (LG MC3286BLU, LG Electronics, South Korea), operating at a frequency of 2450 MHz. The use of a domestic microwave provides a cost-effective, accessible and practical approach for extraction studies, particularly in resource-limited settings. However, limitations such as non-uniform heating and limited control over temperature and pressure compared to laboratory-grade microwave systems were considered during the experimental design to ensure reliable extraction performance. A box-behnken design (BBD) type of response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimise microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of bioactive compounds from banana flower powder. Three independent variables were microwave power (X1, 360-720 W), extraction time (X2, 2-6 min) and solvent ratio (X3, 1-3 g/100 mL) and each were evaluated at three levels (-1, 0, +1). The BBD generated 20 experimental runs with centre-point replications (540 W, 4 min, 2 g/100 mL) to approximate experimental errors and confirm the model (Aquino et al., 2023). Results from the DPPH and ABTS assays were used to assess the relationships among extraction yield (%), total flavonoid content (TFC), antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity. The relation between the dependent and independent variables were assessed by second-order polynomial model.
     
    Y = β0 + ΣβiXi + ΣβiiXi2 + ΣβijXiXj
     
    Design-Experts software (version 13.0) was used for statistical and modelling optimization. All response variables were maximized for validation and determination of optimal predicted conditions through experimentation. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of banana flower powder was performed using a domestic convection microwave (LG MC3286BLU, LG Electronics, South Korea). For each run, 1, 2 and 3 g) of dried banana flower powder and deionized water were placed in a microwave extraction vessel (Vu et al., 2019). The extraction parameters were optimized using a box-behnken design with microwave power (360, 540 and 720 W), extraction time (2, 4 and 6 min) and solid-liquid ratio (1, 2 and 3 g/100 mL). Extracted samples were cooled to 25°C, filtered with whatman no. 1 filter paper and stored in amber bottles at 4°C until further processing.
           
    Total phenolic content (TPC) was evaluated by the folin-ciocalteu method as mg gallic acid equivalents per gram (mg GAE/g) (Domínguez‐López et al., 2023). The total flavonoid content (TFC) was measured using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method, expressed as mg quercetin equivalents (mg QE/g) (Yap et al., 2023). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the DPPH and ABTS assays (Deme et al., 2021; Zeraik et al., 2016). Each experiment was conducted in triplicate and statistical analysis was performed using version 20 of SPSS, with p<0.05 considered as significant.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Box-behnken design and experimental data
     
    To understand how microwave power (X1), extraction time (X2) and solvent ratio (X3) contribute to the extraction of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flower, the factors were canvassed with the use of a box-behnken design (BBD). The response yield were measured as antioxidant activity (ABTS and DPPH), total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC).
           
    Twenty experimental runs (6 centre points) were carried out, In Table 1, the experimental design matrix and corresponding response values are tabulated. The extraction yield ranged from 18.78% to 24.21%, demonstrating a positive correlation with the extraction parameters. 24.21% extraction yield was achieved at 720 W microwave power, 6 min extraction time and a 3 g/100 mL solid to solvent ratio. An extraction yield of 18.78% was recorded at 360 W microwave power and 2 minutes of extraction time. Total phenolic content ranged from 46.26 mg GAE/g to 53.83 mg GAE/g. Total flavonoid range was from 18.87 mg QE/g to 24.05 mg QE/g. The highest phenolic and flavonoid content was observed at 540W, 6 min extraction time and a solvent-to-solid ratio of 2 g/100 mL.

    Table 1: Box-behnken design matrix and experimental results for microwave-assisted extraction of banana flower extracts.



    The data show that microwave power with longer extraction times led to more successful extraction of phenolic compounds, These results are supported by the response surface plots (Fig 1) (Bouallag et al., 2022; Guemghar et al., 2020). Antioxidant activities assayed from DPPH and ABTS were determined to be 59.64-73.07 mg TE/g and 65.53-74.37 mg TE/g, respectively.

    Fig 1: Three-dimensional response surface plots illustrating the interactive effects of microwave power (360-720 W) and extraction time (2-6 min) on (A) Extraction yield (%), (B) Total phenolic content (TPC, mg GAE/g), (C) Total flavonoid content (TFC, mg QE/g), (D) DPPH radical scavenging activity (mg TE/g) and (E) ABTS radical scavenging activity (mg TE/g) of banana flower extracts.



    Effect of microwave power and extraction time
     
    Fig 1A to 1E demonstrate the response surface for microwave power (W) and extraction time (min) of extraction yield, TPC, TFC, DPPH and ABTS, with the centre ratio set at 2 g/100 mL. The response surface plots indicate that the extraction yield, TPC, TFC, DPPH and ABTS were all maximized at 540 W and 4-5 minutes of extraction time. We suggest this is due to rapid microwave heating of the solvent, which enhances solvent penetration and increases extraction yield (López-Salazar et al., 2023). However, if microwave power and time are extreme, bioactive compounds can be thermally degraded and quality deterioration including browning reactions may occur (Tapre and Jain, 2016), consistent with the findings of López-Salazar et al., (2023). The loss of heat-sensitive phytochemicals explains the reduction in TPC and TFC at prolonged extraction times and under high extraction conditions (Alara et al., 2023; Murugesan et al., 2023). The DPPH and ABTS data correlated with the studied phytochemicals and antioxidant activities, thereby validating the antioxidant capacity through a positive correlation with phenolic compounds (Chowdhury et al., 2024).
     
    Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and discussion
     
    The acquired models satisfactorily described the relationship between extraction variables and corresponding responses, as demonstrated by ANOVA results (Table 2). Among all the variables, extraction time and microwave power showed the greatest significance, with approximately 30% and 25% improvements in antioxidant activity and phenolic content, respectively. In comparison, the solvent ratio had a modest effect, resulting in a 12% increase in extraction yield due to enhanced mass transfer (Myo et al., 2025). Microwave-assisted extraction enhances the recovery of bioactive compounds by enabling the release of intracellular compounds through dielectric heating, which helps to rupture cell walls of plants and accelerate the movement of target bioactive compounds inside the extraction solvent (Oktaviani et al., 2025; Sai‐Ut et al., 2023). However, excessive extraction time or microwave power can diminish the quality of heat-sensitive constituents, such as some flavonoids. Regarding the solid-to-solvent ratio, a higher ratio tends to facilitate diffusion while decreasing the concentration of some phenolic constituents in the extraction medium (Tourabi et al., 2025). Overall, the surface and contour response plots indicate a strong interaction between time and microwave power. Regarding the extraction of bioactive antioxidant constituents from banana blossoms, these were deemed the most critical factors.

    Table 2: Microwave-assisted extraction of banana flower.

    CONCLUSION

    This study successfully optimized microwave-assisted extraction conditions for the recovery of antioxidant bioactive compounds from banana flowers using response surface methodology. Microwave power and extraction time were identified as the most significant factors influencing extraction efficiency. The model predicted optimal conditions at 617 W microwave power, 5.67 min extraction time and a solvent ratio of 1.98 g/100 mL. However, due to practical limitations of the domestic microwave system, the closest achievable conditions were 540 W, 6 min and 2 g/100 mL, which also yielded high recovery of phenolic and flavonoid compounds with strong antioxidant activity. These findings indicate that microwave-assisted extraction using a domestic system is a rapid and efficient method, although further studies using controlled laboratory-scale systems are recommended for improved precision.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors would like to acknowledge Lovely Professional University (LPU), Punjab, India, for providing research facilities and academic support while conducting this study.
     
    Author contributions
     
    Bhosle Saurabh Sushil conducted the experiments and analysed the data; Sonia Morya: Idea conceptualization, data analysis, editing and formatting.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflict of interest.

    REFERENCES


    1. Ahmed, S., Alsharif, K.F., Aschner, M., Alzahrani, K.J., Akkol, E.K., Türkcanoğlu, E.G. and Khan, H. (2025). A deep dive into herbal extraction: Techniques, trends and technological advancements. South African Journal of Botany. 188: 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2025.11.005.

    2. Alara, O.R., Abdurahman, N.H. and Ali, H.A. (2023). Optimization of microwave-enhanced extraction parameters to recover phenolic compounds and antioxidants from Corchorus olitorius leaves. Chemical Papers. 77(8): 4217. https:/ /doi.org/10.1007/s11696-023-02771-x.

    3. Aquino, G., Basilicata, M.G., Crescenzi, C., Vestuto, V., Salviati, E., Cerrato, M., Ciaglia, T., Sansone, F., Pepe, G. and Campiglia, P. (2023). Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of antioxidant compounds from spring onion leaves using box-behnken design. Scientific Reports. 13(1): 14923. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42303-x.

    4. Bouallag, O., Zeghichi Hamri, S., Bachir bey, M., Brahmi-Chendouh, N., Bouallag, N., Takka, M., Madani, K. and Boulekabache, L. (2022). Optimization of phenolic compounds extraction from Bellis perennis flowers and assessment for antioxidant properties. The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati Fascicle VI-Food Technology. 46(1): 125. https://doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2022.1.10.

    5. Chowdhury, A., Kumar, A.Y.N., Kumar, R., Maurya, V.K., Mahesh, M.S., Singh, A.K., Yadav, P.K. and Ghosh, M. (2024). Optimization of microwave parameters to enhance phytochemicals, antioxidants and metabolite profile of de-oiled rice bran. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4503656/v1.

    6. Deme, T., Haki, G.D., Retta, N., Woldegiorgis, A.Z.  and Geleta, M. (2021). Fatty acid profile, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) and linseed (Linum usitatissimum). Frontiers in Nutrition.  8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.674882.

    7. Domínguez‐López, I., Pérez, M. and Lamuela, R.R.M. (2023). Total (poly) phenol analysis by the Folin–Ciocalteu assay as an anti- inflammatory biomarker in biological samples. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 64(27): 10048. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2220031.

    8. Guemghar M., Remini H., Bouaoudia-Madi N., Mouhoubi K., Madani K. and Boulekbache Makhlouf, L. (2020). Phenolic compounds from artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) byproducts: Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction and enrichment of table oil. The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati Fascicle VI-Food Technology. 44(1): 193. https:/ /doi.org/10.35219/foodtechnology.2020.1.12.

    9. Jain, P.K., Parashar, A.K. and Shrivastava, V. (2025). A review on exploring the health benefits and antioxidant properties of bioactive polyphenols. Discover Food. 5(1). https:// doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00637-7.

    10. Joshi, P. and Srivastava, A. (2024). Enhancing nutrition and value: Innovative uses of banana blossom in functional food products. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 46(4): 143. https://doi.org/10.62029/jmaps. v46i4.joshi.

    11. Kiribhaga, S., Gomez, S. and Joseph, M. (2022). Qualitative changes and flavour profile of banana (Musa spp.) wine during ageing. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR-1916. 

    12. Kumar, K. and Gomez, S. (2024). Microwave-assisted extraction of bioactives in fruits and vegetables: A comprehensive review. Journal of Food Bioactives. 41. https://doi.org/ 10.26599/jfb.2024.95028394.

    13. Kukreja, N. and Sharma, P. (2024). Composition and pharmacological benefits of banana blossom: A brief review. Agricultural Reviews. 46(5): 766-773. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2697.

    14. López-Salazar, H., Camacho Díaz, B.H., Arenas-Ocampo, M.L. and Jiménez-Aparicio, A.R. (2023). Microwave-assisted extraction of functional compounds from plants: A review. Bio Resources. 18(3). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores. 18.3.lopez-salazar.

    15. Maaiden, E.E., Bouzroud, S., Nasser, B., Moustaid, K., Mouttaqi, A.E., Ibourki, M., Boukcim, H., Hirich, A., Kouisni, L. and Kharrassi, Y.E. (2022). A comparative study between conventional and advanced extraction techniques: Pharmaceutical and cosmetic properties of plant extracts. Molecules. 27(7): 2074. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules 27072074.

    16. Murugesan, S., Maran, J.P., Venkatesan, M. and Anuf, A.R. (2023). Microwave assisted extraction of polyphenols from Pithecellobium dulce benth fruit peels and evaluation of its anticancer and antioxidant activity. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 15(2): 841. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12649-023-02183-8.

    17. Musa, A.M.A., Naufalin, R., Purbowati, I.S.M. and Handayani, I. (2024). The effect of microwave application on the drying of banana (Musa paradisiaca formatypica) flour inoculated by Cronobacter sakazakii bacteria. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 44(3): 426-434. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DRF-420.

    18. Myo, H., Khat udomkiri, N., Sam-ang, P. and Phanumartwiwath, A. (2025). Propylene glycol-based green extraction of polyphenols from industrial hemp stems: Process optimization and bioactivity assessment. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture. 12(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s40538-025-00870-3.

    19. Oirdi, M.E. (2024). Harnessing the power of polyphenols: A new frontier in disease prevention and therapy. Pharmaceuticals.  17(6): 692. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17060692.

    20. Oktaviani, N.M.D., Harun, M.U., Oktavirina, V., Prabawati, N.B., Manikharda, M., Setyaningsih, W. and Palma, M. (2025). Ultrasound-assisted extraction of antioxidants and neuroprotective compounds from banana flowers via simplex-centroid solvent optimization. BIO Web of Conferences. 187: 3004. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/ 202518703004.

    21. Palos-Hernández, A., Gonzaléz Paramás, A.M. and Santos, B.C. (2024). Latest advances in green extraction of polyphenols from plants, foods and food by-products. Molecules. 30(1): 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010055.

    22. Plyduang, T., Monton, C. and Suksaeree, J. (2026). Sustainable green extraction approaches for herbal phytochemicals supporting environmentally friendly and climate responsive product development. Sustainable Chemistry for Climate Action. 8: 100184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scca.2026. 100184.

    23. Sai‐Ut, S., Kingwascharapong, P., Mazumder, M.A.R. and Rawdkuen, S. (2023). Optimization of polyphenolic compounds from gossampinus malabarica flowers by microwave-assisted extraction technology. Future Foods. 8: 100271. https:/ /doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100271.

    24. Samanta, R.K., Chatterjee, A., Kumar, A., Mishra, R., Sahoo, S. and Kumari, M. (2025). Comparative analysis of microwave- assisted extraction and traditional extraction techniques for phytochemicals from plants. International Journal of Environmental Sciences. 3390. https://doi.org/ 10.64252/r5hzc522.

    25. Senevirathna, N. and Karim, A. (2024). Banana inflorescence as a new source of bioactive and pharmacological ingredients for food industry. Food Chemistry Advances. 5: 100814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2024.100814.

    26. Sheu, S., Su, Y. and Gavahian, M. (2025). Valorization of banana inflorescence with integrated blanching and taguchi- optimized ultrasound extraction. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops and Foods. 17(3): 161. https://doi.org/ 10.15586/qas.v17i3.1555.

    27. Siddique, F., Ali, Z., Arshad, M.S., Mubeen, K. and Ghazala, A. (2024). Exploration of novel eco-friendly techniques to utilize bioactive compounds from household food waste: Special reference to food applications. Frontiers in Food Science and Technology. 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/ frfst.2024.1388461.

    28. Sun, S., Liu, Z., Lin, M., Gao, N. and Wang, X. (2024). Polyphenols in health and food processing: antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant insights. Frontiers in Nutrition. 11: 1456730. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1456730.

    29. Tapre, A.R. and Jain, R.K. (2016). Study of inhibition of browning of clarified banana juice. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 35(2): 155-159. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.v35i2.10723.

    30. Tazeddinova, D., Rahman, M.R., Hamdan, S.B., Matin, M.M., Bin Bakri, M.K. and Rahman, M.M. (2022). Plant based polyphenol associations with protein: A prospective review. Bio Resources. 17(4): 7110-7134. Retrieved from https:// ojs.bioresources.com/index.php/BRJ/article/view/22149.

    31. Tourabi, M., Faiz, K., Ezzouggari, R., Louasté, B., Merzouki, M., Dauelbait, M., Bourhia, M., Almaary, K. S., Siddique, F., Lyoussi, B. and Derwich, E. (2025). Optimization of extraction process and solvent polarities to enhance the recovery of phytochemical compounds, nutritional content and biofunctional properties of Mentha longifolia L. extracts. Bioresources and Bioprocessing. 12(1): 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-025-00859-8.

    32. Vu, H.T., Scarlett, C.J. and Vuong, Q.V. (2019). Maximising recovery of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties from banana peel using microwave assisted extraction and water. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 56(3): 1360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03610-2.

    33. Wang, L. and Weller, C.L. (2006). Recent advances in extraction of nutraceuticals from plants. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 17(6): 300-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.tifs.2005.12.004.

    34. Wani, K.M. and Dhanya, M. (2025). Unlocking the potential of banana peel bioactives: Extraction methods, benefits and industrial  applications. Discover Food. 5(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s44187-025-00276-y.

    35. Yap, V.L., Tan, L.F., Rajagopal, M., Wiart, C., Selvaraja, M., Leong, M.Y. and Tan, P.L. (2023). Evaluation of phytochemicals and antioxidant potential of a new polyherbal formulation TC-16: Additive, synergistic or antagonistic? BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 23(1). https:/ /doi.org/10.1186/s12906-023-03921-0.

    36. Zeraik, M.L., Queiroz, E.F., Marcourt, L., Ciclet, O., Castro Gamboa, I., Silva, D.H.S., Cuendet, M., Bolzani, V.S. and Wolfender, J. (2016). Antioxidants, quinone reductase inducers and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors from Spondias tuberosa fruits. Journal of Functional Foods. 21: 396. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.12.009.

    37. Zhang, X., Cao, G., Bi, Y., Liu, X., Yin, H., Zuo, J.F., Xu, W., Li, H., He, S. and Zhou, X. (2023). Comprehensive analysis of 34 edible flowers by the determination of nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity planted in yunnan province China. Molecules. 28(13): 5260. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules28135260.
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)