Spirulina, classified under Cyanophyta with two species such as
Spirulina platensis and
Spirulina maxima are the most important which has gained recognition as a potential food source for the future owing to its comprehensive nutrient profile, including all essential dietary components. Commercial spirulina production is well-developed worldwide, with most cultivation in tropical or semi-tropical regions due to the conditions favouring the microalga’s growth. Spirulina grows optimally in water that is alkaline, saline (with salinity >30 g/L), at high pH levels varying from 8.5 - 11.0 and temperatures ranging from 30 to 35°C, where there is a lot of solar radiation at altitude. Since spirulina is an obligate photoautotroph, it cannot thrive on organic carbon substrates in the absence of light
(Balkrishna et al., 2023). Spirulina is cultivated worldwide due to its rich nutritional profile, rapid growth rate and minimal resource requirements. Major producers around the world include the United States, China, Thailand, Taiwan, Japan and India. They produce over 10,000 tons each year
(Habib et al., 2008; FAO, 2020).
Spirulina is one of the most thoroughly investigated and marketed algae and is known for its high protein content. Additionally, due to its easily digestible properties and numerous health benefits, notable global organizations such as WHO and FAO have recognized Spirulina as a superfood or food in the future
(Singh et al., 2023). Additionally, microalgae have more valuable cellular components than biomass from agricultural sources such as food crops (
e.
g., corn, barley, potatoes, sugar cane and potatoes) and lignocellulosic biomass such as straw, grass and wood
(Costa et al., 2019). They include proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, antioxidants and pigments.
Spirulina platensis has the potential to produce significant amounts of biomass and carbohydrates when cultivated in mixotrophic environments (
Pulz and Gross, 2004).
The diverse applications of Spirulina in the food, medicine, biofuel, cosmetics and agricultural sectors demonstrate its biological and economic importance. Spirulina is regarded as a natural remedy by individuals worldwide and it is employed in the production of nutritional supplements and functional meals as a result of its documented properties. Due to the increasing demand for food, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals, Spirulina serves as a sustainable alternative for health enhancement and malnutrition mitigation (
Ramirez-Rodrigues et al., 2021). Spirulina is a blue-green, multicellular, filamentous cyanobacterium. Its name is derived from the Latin words for “helix” and “spiral,” which are indicative of the organism’s physical structure, which involves the formation of tiny strands that rotate. Spirulina is a large organism, with a length of 0.5 millimeters, despite being unicellular. In lesser species, the cell diameter ranged from 1 to 3 µm, while in larger species, it ranged from 3 to 12 µm. Because cells can divide easily and tend to stick together in colonies, Spirulina sp. is a large and easy-to-harvest biomass (
Richmond 1984;
Ljubic et al., 2018; De Marco Castro et al. 2019).
Consequently, the UNWFC (United Nations World Food Conference) acknowledged
Spirulina platensis as a nutritious food source. Spirulina has been used for centuries as a nutritional supplement due to its high concentration of nutritive ingredients. Furthermore, researchers have identified impacts on fecundity, egg and plumage color and milk yield when S. platensis was used as forage
(Grosshagauer et al., 2020). In one study, the adaptability of the alga to its nutrient levels and its recognized anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidant, antidiabetic and anticancer properties were investigated. As a result, people refer to such algae as a “superfood.” Furthermore, a variety of products, including yogurt, ice cream and confectionery, have been used as natural colorant
(Jung et al., 2019; Ramirez-Rodrigues et al., 2021).
The nutritional characteristics of
S.
platensis are currently being investigated by researchers. This single-cell protein is distinguished by its abundance of components, which include antioxidant pigments, β-carotene, carotenoids, essential amino acids, fatty acids, proteins and phycocyanin. At present, researchers are investigating the nutritional quality and influence of
S.
platensis on growth, immunity, antioxidants, antitoxicology, anticancerogenic properties, cholesterol and glucose metabolism and fertility. Consequently, S. platensis may serve as a viable alternative and/or nutrient in the future (
Ramirez-Rodrigues et al., 2021;
Lafarga et al., 2020; Thevarajah et al., 2022). Considering aforementioned points, this review offers information on the nutritional value, health benefits and applications of Spirulina, underscoring its status as a sustainable superfood that is instrumental in the advancement of global nutrition and health.
Nutritional composition
Spirulina is predominantly composed of 55-70% protein and 5-6% lipid (w/w). The total lipid content is composed of 1.5-2% polyunsaturated fatty acids
(Wu et al., 2016). Spirulina spp. contains α-linolenic acid (36% total PUFAs), vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, B12, vitamin C, D and E), minerals (K, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, P, Se, Na, Zn) and pigments (
Desai and Sivakami 2007;
Demir and Tukel 2010). The general proximate composition of Spirulina can be summarized as follows (in percentage of desiccated weight): Proteins make up 50-70% of the diet, carbohydrates 15-25%, lipids 6-13%, nucleic acids 4.2-6% and minerals 2.2-4.8%. Table 1 illustrates the nutritional profile of Spirulina.
Protein
Spirulina provides more protein (50-70% of dried weight) than meat, eggs, dry milk, grains and soybeans and includes all essential amino acids except methionine, cysteine and lysine. It beat all plant proteins, including legumes (
Sharoba, 2014). Due to the lack of cellulose barriers, Spirulina protein digests 83-90% better than pure casein (95.1%).
De Marco Castro et al. (2019) reported that Spirulina has Net protein utilization (NPU) of 53.00 - 92.00% and a Protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 1.8-2.6.
Carbohydrates
S.
platensis main polymer is a glycogen-like branching polysaccharide. Microalgae synthesise carbohydrates through photosynthesis and carbon fixation. They play various roles, including structural components of cell walls or metabolic energy stores. They consist mainly of sugars such as glucose - 97%, rhamnose - 2.7% and mannose - 0.4%
(Chwil et al., 2024). The percentage of carbohydrates represents about 15-25% of the dry weight of
S.
platensis. Specific polysaccharides, such as sodium
S.
platensis (Na-SP) and calcium
S.
platensis (Ca-SP), have interesting antiviral, immunostimulatory and anticoagulant properties
(Begum et al., 2024). In addition, the rich composition of S. spirulina oligosaccharides indicates that its consumption supports intestinal microflora growth. The acidic polysaccharides present in
Spirulina platensis, thanks to their content of sulphate esters, sulphate groups and amino residues, are capable of inducing the synthesis of tumour necrosis factor and polysaccharide extracts from the alga show chemoprotective activity
(Bortolini et al., 2022). It has been proven that the heteropolysaccharide (SP90-1) present in spirulina, consisting of glucose, rhamnose, galactose, glucuronic acid, xylose and fructose, exhibits immunostimulatory and anticancer effects by inhibiting the growth of A549 lung cancer cells
(Chwil et al., 2024). Researchers have also found immunomodulatory and antiviral high-molecular-weight anionic polysaccharides in Spirulina
(Parages et al., 2012).
Fat
The fat content in spirulina is between 6% and 9%
(Wang et al., 2023). A study by
Grosshagauer et al., (2020) found that
Spirulina platensis had an average fat content of 10.0%. The fats in
S.
platensis are mostly polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and saturated fatty acids (SFA). The main fat is γ-linoleic acid (30-35%), which is an important PUFA for cell membranes. Other fats include glycolipids and essential fatty acids like ω3 and ω6 (
Bohorquez-Medina et al., 2021). The fats in Spirulina are comprised of a saponifiable fraction (83%) and a non-saponifiable fraction (17%). The former contains essential pigments, paraffins, sterols and other compounds. In
S.
maxima and
S.
platensis, linolenic acid accounts for 10-20% and 49% of their fatty acid content, respectively. Therefore, we can consider Spirulina to be a reliable source of linoleic acid comparable to human milk and certain vegetable oils such as evening primrose, borage, blackcurrant seed and hemp oil.
S.
maxima also contain saturated palmitic acid, as well as unsaturated oleic and linoleic acids, which together account for over 60% of its lipid content.
Spirulina’s primary lipids are monogalactosyl- and sulfoquinovosyl-diacylglycerol as well as phosphatidylglyce rol (
Petkov and Furnadzieva, 1988). An examination of the fatty acid composition revealed that the ω6 fatty acid content ranged from 23.1% to 24.5%, whereas the ω3 fatty acid, specifically alpha-linolenic acid, was present in minimal amounts. The fatty acids derived from
S.
platensis may be incorporated into dietary regimens to address lipid metabolism disorders, with a particular emphasis on polyunsaturated fatty acids
(Li et al., 2019).
Health benefits
Bioactive compounds
Phenolic compounds, which are molecules that contain a benzene ring with at least one hydroxyl substituent, are the primary component of products that originate from plants. Teas
(Bortolini et al., 2021), fruits and their derivatives
(Rossetto et al., 2020), edible florals
(Bortolini et al., 2022) and algae
(Machu et al., 2015) are among the products in consideration. The most prevalent phenolic chemical categories in Spirulina were phenolic acids and flavonoids. Chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycocyanin are additional bioactive components that contribute to the color of this algae.
The main carotenoids in spirulina include β-carotene, canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin. β-carotene is the predominant carotenoid in spirulina, accounting for up to 80% of the total carotenoids. It functions as a potent antioxidant and serves as a photoprotector and precursor for the synthesis of vitamin A in the body, thereby supporting health and immune function (
Maoka, 2020). Lutein and zeaxanthin have been shown to beneficially delay the progression of ocular diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and cataracts
(Mrowicka et al., 2022). Canthaxanthin (β, β-carotene-4,42 -dione) is a keto-carotenoid naturally produced in a wide array of organisms, exhibiting strong antioxidant activity. It has been reported to be a more effective antioxidant than â-carotene (
Naguib, 2001). From a commercial perspective, canthaxanthin is one of the most significant xanthophylls due to its extensive applications (
Perera and Yen, 2007). Astaxanthin, a naturally occurring xanthophyll carotenoid with strong antioxidant properties, has demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity and has been reported to offer protective benefits against acute lung injury, attributed to its substantial antioxidant capabilities. These carotenoids work synergistically to provide antioxidant protection, support ocular and dermal health and contribute to spirulina’s overall nutritional and functional benefits. The diverse carotenoid profile renders spirulina a valuable dietary source of these essential phytonutrients.
The probiotic, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic activities of these organisms benefit human health. The food industry has become increasingly dependent on algae due to these characteristics, notably in the development of products in the fields of medicine, chemistry, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals
(Bortolini et al., 2022).
Prebiotic effects
Jamil et al., (2015) conducted a study to evaluate the prebiotic effects of spirulina as a growth and immune promoter in broiler poultry. According to these findings, Spirulina is a natural feed additive that has the potential to substantially increase broiler production, thereby potentially reducing production costs. Another study examined the prebiotic efficacy of blue-green algae in relation to probiotic microorganisms. It was found that the extracellular products made by
Spirulina platensis help lactic acid bacteria like
Lactococcus lactis,
Streptococcus thermophiles,
Lactobacillus casei,
Lactobacillus acidophilus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus grow
(Gupta et al., 2017).
As a prebiotic diet additive or pollen substitute, spirulina has the potential to considerably enhance the health of honeybees (
Ricigliano and Simone-Finstrom, 2020). The authors suggest that the health of pollinators could be enhanced by the addition of Spirulina as a prebiotic additive, as it could increase the abundance and metabolism of beneficial intestinal flora. The prebiotic effect of
Spirulina platensis is a consequence of its composition, which is abundant in oligosaccharides. According to
Cai et al., (2022a), the consumption of this nutrient has the potential to stimulate the development of intestinal microfloras.
Elwakil et al., (2024) also investigated the potential of
Spirulina platensis as a super prebiotic to improve the antibacterial efficacy of
Lactobacillus casei. These results indicated that the antibacterial activity and probiotic live count of
S.
platensis were substantially improved at a concentration of 5 mg/mL.
Antitumor activity and immune system
Spirulina platensis, a cyanobacterium, may boost the immune system and prevent cancer and viral infection
(Hirahashi et al., 2002). Recent research has shown that Spirulina (
Arthrospira sp.) can be used to treat and prevent cancer. It is unclear whether Spirulina can reduce the adverse effects of chemotherapy in patients with malignant tumors. Microalgae derivatives may boost immunity and fight cancer in addition to probiotics.
S.
platensis polysaccharides contain several sulfate groups, esters and amine residues. Sulfate groups play a pivotal role in inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis and preventing angiogenesis by disrupting growth factor binding and signaling pathways
(Mendhulkar et al., 2020). These factors immune system function, tumor necrosis synthesis, phagocytosis and interleukin production
(Cai et al., 2022a). Spirulina suppresses tumor cell migration and invasiveness and has antiangiogenic properties
(Bortolini et al., 2022). Ge et al., (2019) found that spirulina lowers myelosuppression and increases immune function following chemotherapy in malignant tumour patients.
A study by
Subramaiam et al., (2021) discovered that adding gT3 (gamma-tocotrienol) to Spirulina did not make it more effective in fighting cancer or changing the immune system in a genetically modified mouse model of breast cancer. Similarly,
Hirahashi et al., (2002) examined the blood cells of volunteers before and after oral administration of a hot water extract of Spirulina and discovered that it directly affects myeloid lineages and either directly or indirectly affects natural killer cells. Natural killer-mediated IFN gamma production requires cooperative IL-12 and IL-18.
Polysaccharides have potential as adjuvant therapies in cancer treatment, as they not only enhance the body’s immune response against cancer cells but also counteract the immunosuppressive effects of conventional chemotherapy drugs. These polysaccharides can activate T cells, B cells, natural killer cells and macrophage-dependent immune responses
(Chaiklahan et al., 2013). Additionally, they stimulate the production of cytokines, such as IL-2, IFN-g and TNF-α, thereby enhancing immune surveillance and the body’s capacity to target and eliminate malignant cells. Their structural complexity and charge density also enable them to scavenge free radicals, thereby reducing DNA damage and oxidative stress, which are key contributors to carcinogenesis.
Neuroprotective effects
Many recent studies have revealed that Spirulina improves neuronal development and protects the brain by reducing oxidative stress and antioxidants
(Patil et al., 2018; Tocher et al., 2019). Abd Elkader et al. (2024) also suggested the presence of and its biologically active ingredients for neurological illnesses. They evaluated Spirulina and its active ingredients in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric illnesses. Daily ingestion of C-phycocyanin, an
S.
platensis phycobiliprotein, improves the quality of life of patients with MS. Disease-essential redox processes and myelination/demyelination undergo modulation
(Bortolini et al., 2022). Current research suggests that spirulina can improve mental wellness. Their antioxidant, neuroprotective, cognitive-enhancing and mood-regulating characteristics may improve brain health and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. However, to evaluate the optimal dosing, duration and long-term brain health effects of Spirulina supplementation, more research, particularly well-designed human clinical trials, are required
(Kumar et al., 2025).
Antidiabetic effect and effects on metabolic disorders
Dietary trends have emphasized the potential of Spirulina spp. as a beneficial adjuvant therapy, particularly for the treatment of osteoporosis and diabetes. Chromium, which binds to peptides that bind to insulin receptors, enhances the hypoglycemic properties of
S.
platensis (Ekeuku
et al., 2021). Taking
S.
platensis supplements, especially while pregnant or breastfeeding, has been shown to protect neurons from the bad effects of malnutrition, reactive gliosis and neurodegeneration
(Sinha et al., 2020), which controls expression levels. Furthermore, Spirulina has been found to decrease oxidative stress and blood sugar levels, which is likely attributable to the high concentration of ω-6 PUFAs
(Guldas et al., 2020).
Antioxidant activity
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can destroy biological molecules and cause various illnesses. Oxidative stress contributes to hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, ischemic illness and cancer. Oxidative stress from MDA and 4-hydroxynonenal is high (
Yoshikawa and Naito, 2002).
In vitro and
in vivo studies have shown that spirulina reduces oxidative stress. Phycocyanins, β-carotene and other vitamins and minerals in spirulina have antioxidant and protective properties (
Abdel-Daim et al., 2013;
Upasani and Balaraman, 2003).
In vitro research has shown that Spirulina or its extracts act as antioxidants
(Qing et al., 2003). Spirulina contains antioxidants, such as asolic acids, tocopherols and β-carotene. Studies have shown that Spirulina provides antioxidant protection
in vitro and
in vivo and that Spirulina methanolic extract contains antioxidant chemicals that can inhibit oxidation
(Miranda et al., 1998). Chromogenic and caffeic acids, which are phenolic components of Spirulina extract, are better antioxidants than lard acids (
Marinova and Yanishlieva, 1992).
Abd El-Baky et al. (2009) investigated whether
Spirulina platensis cells grown in media with different hydrogen peroxide concentrations may increase the levels of chemicals. Researchers have linked higher H
2O
2 levels to higher levels of cellular lipophilic antioxidants (carotenoids and tocopherol) and hydrophilic antioxidants (glutathione and ascorbic acid).
Anti-inflammatory activity
Spirulina has well-documented benefits in boosting immunity and resilience against inflammation. It exhibits a highly promising anti-inflammatory effect in arthritis and colitis. An experimental model of colitis in rodents was the first to document the anti-inflammatory effects of phycocyanin (
Gonzalez and Romay, 1999). Such components enhances the anti-inflammatory properties of Spirulina spp. Spirulina maxima lipid polysaccharide and protein isolates exhibited inhibitory effects against platelet aggregation induced by inflammatory and thrombotic mediators in the study conducted by
Koukouraki et al., (2020). Therefore, researchers consider it a potential nutraceutical and food supplement that could aid in the treatment of thrombosis, inflammation and related conditions
(Wu et al., 2016).
Immunomodulatory activity
Recent speculation has linked Spirulina to regulation of the host immune system
(Watanuki et al., 2006). Spirulina is a potent immune stimulant, as demonstrated in animal studies. Spirulina polysaccharides primarily elicit immunostimulatory effects
(Wu et al., 2016). It augments the phagocytic activity of macrophages, promotes the accumulation of natural killer (NK) cells in tissues, activates and mobilizes T and B cells and stimulates cytokine and antibody production
(Khan et al., 2005; Mao et al., 2000; Gad et al., 2011). In a single study, researchers purified and characterized SP90-1 from
Spirulina platensis, a novel heteropolysaccharide with immunostimulatory and antitumor properties. The authors further stated that further investigation of SP90-1 for immunomodulatory biomedical applications is possible
(Cai et al., 2022b). The various health benefits of Spirulina are depicted in Table 2.
Use of spirulina in various food products
Several countries have certified Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) Spirulina. The FDA (Silver Spring, MD, USA) and ANVISA (Brasília, Brazil) have been used as food or supplements. Because Spirulina cultivation requires high pH, it prevents the growth of other organisms
(Soni et al., 2017). Many African countries continue to collect it from natural water, dry it and use it as a source of protein. Spirulina is used for self-health in various places
(Koli et al., 2022). Given the high nutraceutical content of Spirulina biomass, research is shifting toward bioactive fortified functional foods, such as doughnuts, pasta, salad dressing, mayonnaises and gelled sweets.
Pasta
As a popular convenience food, pasta is valued for its good sensory properties, affordability and ease of preparation, versatility across cuisines and extended shelf life, making Spirulina-enriched variants a promising option for meeting modern dietary demands
(Koli et al., 2022). De Marco et al. (2014) demonstrated that incorporating Spirulina biomass into fresh pasta enhances its nutritional composition without compromising sensory, textural, or cooking quality. Similarly,
Pagnussatt et al., (2014) highlighted that
Spirulina platensis can be effectively used in commercial dry pasta while maintaining acceptable sensory and technological attributes.
Hussein et al., (2021) claimed that spirulina-enriched pasta is a significant source of antioxidants and protein. The enrichment of pasta resulted in a decrease in sensory scores as the addition level increased. The low concentrations of 2-pentylfuran and hexanal as aroma compounds may be the cause of this reduction.
Ozyurt et al. (2015) formulated pasta using semolina and
Spirulina platensis at three different concentrations (5, 10 and 15% w/w) to enhance its nutritional and sensory qualities. The study results indicated that the sensory evaluation of pasta enriched with 10%
S.
platensis yielded a favorable overall score, comparable to that of the control group. Similarly,
De Marco et al. (2014) assessed the impact of Spirulina inclusion on the nutritional and technological qualities of dried pasta. The authors also reported that the incorporation of Spirulina resulted in an increase in protein content. However, the digestibility of protein decreased as the proportion of microalgae increased. In contrast to the control pasta, the spirulina-infused pasta exhibited a high level of antioxidant activity and phenolic compound content, which has the potential to improve the nutritional profile of the product.
Spirulina powder, incorporated at 2-15% concentrations into semolina-based pasta, enhanced its nutritional profile by significantly increasing protein, phenolic, flavonoid, iron and calcium content while retaining textural and sensory qualities. FAME analysis showed 2 to 2.5 times higher levels of g-linolenic and docosahexaenoic acids with improved antioxidant activity. Nutrient retention after cooking and high sensory ratings, particularly for pasta with 12.5% Spirulina, highlight its consumer appeal. This green pasta, symbolizing health and vitality, offers a sustainable solution for addressing malnutrition, particularly in undernourished populations, making it a promising alternative for enhancing nutritional security and alleviating hidden hunger
(Koli et al., 2022).
Dried / Powdered food
Santos et al., (2016) developed a powdered product that resembled a chocolate shake and contained 750 mg of spirulina per 100 g of microalgal biomass. Based on their findings, cuisine had an average acceptance rate of 7.68 and 7.77, with 43.40% protein, 41.34% carbohydrates and 45.73% and 46.51% fat, respectively.
Sharoba, (2014) developed and assessed complementary foods enhanced with spirulina for infants aged between one and three. These foods include cereals, legumes, fruits and other vegetables. The formulations were evaluated as biologically safe, sensory-acceptable, nutritionally appropriate, cost-effective and viable for domestic and industrial applications. In another study, the effect of incorporating 9% Spirulina platensis paste into dried noodles was assessed. The results of the study showed a significant increase in elasticity, protein (4x), β-carotene and sensory acceptability, all while meeting the Indonesian National Standards for protein, water and calcium content
(Agustini et al., 2017).
Soup
Lafarga et al., (2019) prepared broccoli soup by incorporating
Spirulina sp.,
Chlorella sp., or
Tetraselmis spp. at concentrations spanning from 0.5 to 2.0% (w/v). This led to an increase in the quantity of phenolics and antioxidants, as well as consumer acceptance, when combined in a suitable manner.
Los et al., (2018) formulated dehydrated broths using flour derived from peach palm by-products (PPB), Spirulina platensis, or spinach. The authors also evaluated the composition of these formulations using physical, chemical, instrumental and sensory methodologies. A novel market niche was identified through sensory analysis and stews that contained PPB and S. platensis exhibited favorable acceptability. Spinach, Spirulina platensis and peach palm flour are effective alternatives for nutritionally enriching dehydrated soups with high protein, ash, fiber and antioxidant content.
Cookies / Biscuits
Batista et al., (2017) showed that the addition of
Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, Tetraselmis suecica and Phaeodactylum tricornutum to cookies at concentrations of 2% and 6% improved their antioxidant, functional and total phenolic content.
Barakat et al., (2016) demonstrated that Spirulina algae contained a high level of protein (67.0±5.2% dried weight) and significant quantities of bioactive compounds with antioxidant activity, including phycocyanin (1254±23 mg/100 g) and β-carotene (85±5 mg/100 g). Additionally, researchers have reported an improvement in the organoleptic, chemical and nutritional properties of biscuit mixtures fortified with dried Spirulina algae at concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2 and 3%. The panel test organoleptically accepted the biscuit mixtures as soon as they demonstrated high nutritional values, bioactive content and protein and mineral content compared to the unfortified biscuit samples (control).
Seema et al., (2025) demonstrated that cookies supplemented with up to 6%
Spirulina platensis powder, in combination with wheat and bengal gram flour, were well accepted sensorially and showed enhanced protein and starch digestibility along with an improved nutrient profile.
Andaregie et al., (2024) investigated the factors that influence parents’ willingness to purchase spirulina-fortified bread for primary school children in Ethiopia. Socioeconomic status, perception of benefits and acceptability significantly influenced the purchasing decisions, according to the results. These results bolster the promotion of spirulina-fortified consumables for children’s nutrition through evidence-based dietary interventions and policy initiatives. The addition of microencapsulated Spirulina biomass into biscuits has yielded promising outcomes in terms of nutritional enhancement and sensory acceptance. da
Silva et al., (2021) demonstrated that spray-dried microencapsulation facilitated the incorporation of 20% Spirulina biomass without significant sensory degradation, resulting in biscuits with a 40% increase in protein content and potential claims as a source of iron.
Gun et al., (2022) reported that the inclusion of 4%
Spirulina platensis improved the properties of biscuits, enhancing protein content by 56.92% and improving amino acid profiles. Furthermore, research on the addition of Spirulina powder to shortbread biscuits indicated increased hardness, a darker color, higher antioxidant activity and reduced oxidative changes during storage, all while maintaining consumer acceptability (
Marcinkowska-Lesiak et al., 2018).
Snacks
As per the study conducted by
Lucas et al., (2018) spirulina-enriched snacks showed improved nutritional content (increased protein, lipids and minerals) without significantly affecting physical parameters, while maintaining sensory acceptance. The addition of Spirulina influenced color parameters and resulted in thin-walled microstructures. The protein, minerals and fat are increased by 22.60%, 46.40% and 28.10% respectively. In another study, spirulina-enriched snack foods showed that adding up to 10% Spirulina improved protein and ash content, as well as physical and textural properties, while ensuring microbiological safety. Snacks are cost-effective and suitable for domestic and export production
(Morsy et al., 2014).
Dairy products
The utilization of Spirulina in dairy products has been investigated in numerous studies, with a focus on its potential to enhance nutritional value, antioxidant activity and sensory attributes. Research indicates that the incorporation of
Spirulina platensis into ice cream can augment antioxidant activity and polyphenol content
(Rodrigues et al., 2020). In vegan kefir, Spirulina fortification has been shown to improve prebiotic potential, bioactive quality and microbial counts (
Sozeri Atik et al., 2021). Traditional kefir supplemented with
Spirulina platensis exhibited increased protein content, enhanced amino acid profile, elevated iron levels and improved antioxidant activities (
Ustun Aytekin et al., 2022).
Investigations into yoghurt fortification with
Spirulina platensis have favoured accelerated fermentation, improved water holding capacity and enhanced antioxidant activity
(Barkallah et al., 2017). The microalga has also shown promise in the development of functional Ricotta cheese, leading to increased protein, fat, ash, fiber and mineral contents, as well as improved antioxidant capacity. These findings suggest that Spirulina can be effectively employed as a natural ingredient to develop novel dairy products with enhanced nutritional and functional properties
(Ismail et al., 2023). Narayana and Kale, (2019) reported that supplementation of probiotic yoghurt with 1 g/L Spirulina enhanced the viability of
Bifidobacterium bifidum,
Streptococcus salivarius ssp.
thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp.
bulgaricus during storage, while maintaining acceptable pH and acidity, thereby supporting its potential in functional dairy product development.
Other food products
The addition of microalgae, specifically Spirulina and Chlorella, into bread and breadsticks has been demonstrated to enhance their nutritional profile, notably in terms of antioxidant capacity and mineral content, while also influencing physical attributes such as texture, rheology and color. Despite these modifications, consumer acceptability was largely preserved, suggesting the potential of microalgae as functional ingredients in baked goods.
Hernandez-Lopez et al. (2023) and
Uribe-Wandurraga et al. (2019) have documented that microalgae like Spirulina can be effectively incorporated into bakery products, providing both nutritional advantages and environmental sustainability, thereby creating innovative, nutrient-dense options for consumers.
El-Anany et al. (2023) found that the addition of spirulina powder to chicken mortadella enhanced its nutritional profile and antioxidant properties without adversely affecting its sensory attributes. The incorporation of vegetable oils into spirulina-based ‘crostini’ was shown to protect phycocyanin from degradation during cooking, likely due to the tocopherol content of the oils
(Niccolai et al., 2021).
Other applications
Solanki et al., (2023) optimized the cultivation of
Spirulina platensis and found that Zarrouk’s modified medium yielded the highest biomass, phycocyanin and carotenoid contents, indicating its superiority for enhancing growth and pigment production compared to other tested media. The study demonstrated that replacing 50-75% of fishmeal with Arthrospira platensis in the diet of Buenos Aires Tetra significantly improved growth performance, feed efficiency and carotenoid deposition in muscle and skin, highlighting its potential as a functional aquafeed ingredient
(Rana et al., 2024).
Applications of spirulina in animal feeding: Impacts on growth, product quality and health
Spirulina (
Arthrospira platensis) has gained considerable attention as a functional feed ingredient in diverse animal production systems due to its high-quality protein, essential fatty acids, pigments, vitamins and bioactive compounds. In poultry,
Peipei and Sumin, (2017) demonstrated that dietary supplementation with Spirulina powder (5-15 g/kg), in combination with traditional Chinese herbal medicines, improved yolk color, Haugh unit and iron content, while reducing cholesterol and triglycerides in eggs. Similarly,
Naik et al., (2024) reported that broiler diets enriched with up to 1.5% Spirulina significantly enhanced body weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR), antioxidant status, immunity and beneficial gut microflora, with 1.5% proving most effective.
In mammalian models,
Seyidoglu et al., (2019) found that oral Spirulina supplementation (500-1000 mg/kg body weight) in Wistar albino rats produced positive correlations between abdominal fat, growth and anthropometric indices without adverse effects on liver histopathology or serum enzymes. In rabbits,
Khanna et al., (2024) observed that a 5% Spirulina-supplemented diet altered serum protein fractions, increasing albumin and reducing globulin levels, though growth performance and FCR were not significantly improved compared to controls.
Aquaculture studies have also highlighted Spirulina’s potential as an alternative protein source.
Sivakumar et al., (2018) reported that partial replacement of fishmeal with 42.8% Spirulina meal in Penaeus monodon diets resulted in superior growth, feed efficiency, survival and carcass composition compared to both control and higher-replacement diets. Likewise,
Sowmiya et al., (2025) demonstrated that P. vannamei fed a diet containing 10% Spirulina achieved the highest growth rates, optimal feed utilization, improved body composition and enhanced resistance to Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Collectively, these findings underscore Spirulina’s versatility as a feed additive, capable of enhancing growth, product quality, immune function and disease resistance across a range of animal species when incorporated at optimal inclusion levels.
Emerging trends and future perspectives
S.
platensis, in particular, is a type of spirulina that is highly nutritious, environmentally friendly and has exceptional curative properties.
Spirulina platensis is gaining recognition for its high nutritional value and environmentally sustainable characteristics. It holds significant importance in the fields of medicine and technology. In the field of food science, researchers are incorporating Spirulina into plant-based meats, dairy alternatives and probiotic beverages to enhance their health benefits. In biotechnology, scientists are optimizing Spirulina to increase the production of valuable compounds such as phycocyanin and carotenoids through specialized techniques. In the field of immunology, the compounds found in Spirulina are being investigated for their potential to enhance the immune system, which could contribute to the development of vaccines and therapeutic interventions. In microbiology, Spirulina is being studied for its ability to promote beneficial gut bacteria while inhibiting harmful ones, thereby improving gut and immune health. In pharmacology, Spirulina is being explored for its potential to prevent cancer, reduce inflammation and combat viral infections. Some studies are examining its efficacy in the treatment of cancer, diabetes and viral infections.
