Background: Propofol is intravenous short acting general anaesthetic most popular drug for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in veterinary practice due to its rapid induction and smooth recovery. However, as sole general anaesthetic, it is unsatisfactory because of its poor analgesic property and causing hypotension and apnoea. Therefore, it commonly used in combination with opioid or alpha 2 agonist to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sedative, analgesic and anaesthetic efficacy of propofol in combination with butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine premedication in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on 18 healthy adult dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (ButP, DexP and AceP) with six animals in each. Glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly 10 minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration in all the dogs. The animals of group ButP, DexP and AceP were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. Ten minutes later propofol was injected intravenously at a dose of 7 mg/kg b.wt. to induce general anesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 25.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was earlier in group DexP followed by AceP and ButP. Group DexP exhibited significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery than groups ButP and AceP. All the groups had excellent analgesia; however animals of group DexP showed longer duration of analgesia. All the reflexes were abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexP. The above anaesthetic study suggests that propofol in combination with dexmedetomidine; butorphanol or acepromazine can be safely used for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-propofol combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality suitable for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Sedative, Analgesic and Anaesthetic Evaluation of Propofol in Combination with Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine and Acepromazine in Clinically Healthy Dogs

<div style="text-align: justify;">Medetomidine is most potent &aacute;-2 adrenergic selective agonist, produces consistent sedation, anxiolysis and muscle relaxation, which makes it a popular sedative agent in veterinary anaesthesia. It produces dose dependent sedation and analgesia in animals. In veterinary practice it is used for premedication and as an adjunct to general anaesthesia in several species. Similar to other alpha-2 agonists it exerts its effect through the action on alpha-2 adrenergic receptors. The sedative and anxiolytic effects of &aacute;-2 agonists are mediated by agonism of supraspinal autoreceptors situated in the pons, whereas analgesic effects are mediated by agonism of heteroreceptors located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Medetomidine through stimulation of central and peripheral adrenoreceptors, significantly affect cardiovascular function. Medetomidine reduces both rate and depth of respiration. Medetomidine generally used along with butorphanol for premedication prior to induction of general anaesthesia. Medetomidine administration reduces both injectable and inhalant anesthetic requirements in several species. &nbsp;</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Systemic Effects and Clinical Application of Medetomidine in Animals: A Review</div>

<div>Most commonly used &alpha;2-adrenoceptor agonist shows adverse cardiovascular effects during anaesthesia. They mainly depress the cardiovascular system by provoking vasoconstriction followed by bradycardia. Although &alpha;2-adrenoceptor antagonist like atipamezole can reverse these effects along with that they also reverse the sedation and nociception. Concomitant administration of peripherally acting &alpha;2-adrenoceptor antagonist MK-467 can reverse the adverse cardiovascular effect of &alpha;2-adrenoceptor agonists without affecting the sedation and nociception. MK-467 has been successfully used in different animals like dogs, cats, sheep, horses along with different &alpha;2-adrenoceptor agonist drugs. This review aims to summarize the effects of MK-467 on sedation, cardiopulmonary system, the minimum alveolar concentration of different inhalant anaesthetics, plasma drug concentration, plasma glucose and insulin in different animals.</div>

<div>Various Systemic Effects of MK-467, A Peripherally Acting &alpha;2-adrenoceptor Antagonist in Different Animal Species: An Overview</div>

The objective of study was to assess the quality of analgesia and record the alteration in anaesthetic indices following lumbosacral administration of lignocaine alone @ 4 mg/kg body weight in group I and its combination with butorphanol@ 0.04 mgkg body weight in group II. Onset of analgesia in both groups was evident at 5 min and reached to peak level at 15 minutes of observation. The incoordination and sedation was more marked in butorphanol groups as compared to lignocaine groups. The onset of analgesia was delayed in group II as compared to group I, whereas, duration of analgesia and standing time was significantly higher (P&lt;0.05) in group II as compared to group I. Time to recumbency did not revealed significant variation between groups. It is concluded that lignocaine alone and in-combination produced satisfactory onset of analgesia but it remained longer time in lignocaine &ndash; butorphanol group (group II) with respect to duration of analgesia and time to standing. However, this combination also showed the marked sedation and incoordination. Hence, butorphanol in combination with lignocaine was considered better for producing analgesia for longer duration operative procedure.

Anaesthetic evaluation of lignocaine alone and in-combination with butorphanol in goats

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

Background: Zoletil is a proprietary combination of equal parts of tiletamine and zolazepam with relatively short duration of action which necessitates administration of several maintenance doses. Zoletil combined with dexmedetomidine and fentanyl citrate in goats has not been reported in Indian literature. Therefore, the objective of present study was to compare the sedative, analgesic, anaesthetic efficacy and suitability of peanaesthetics in combination with intravenous zoletil anaesthesia in goats. 
 
Methods: Eighteen healthy non-descript goats of either sex, weighing between 20-25 kg were randomly divided into three groups (Group Z, DexZ and FentZ) with six animals in each. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/kg b.wt. intramuscularly was administered 10 min. prior to anaesthetic trail in all the animals of different groups. The animals of group Z received Zoletil alone @ 5.5 mg/kg by slow intravenous injection and kept as control. Ten minutes later, in groups DexZ and FentZ, dexmedetomidine @ 5 mcg/kg b.wt. and fentanyl citate @ 10 mcg/kgb.wt. were administered slow intravenously respectively. Anaesthesia was induced 10 minutes later by slow bolus dose of Zoletil @ 5.5 mg/kg b. wt. intravenously in animals of all the groups till the pedal reflex abolished.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexZ followed by FentZ and Z. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery time were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexZ as compared to group FentZ and Z. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but of longer duration in animals of group DexZ. To conclude dexmedetomidine-zoletil combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with excellent muscle relaxation suitable for long surgical procedure.&nbsp;

Comparative Evaluation of Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl Citrate as Preanaesthetic to Intravenous Zoletil Anaesthesia in Goats (Capra hircus)

<div>Background: Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, tachycardia, catalepsy or muscle rigidity and therefore commonly used in combination with alpha 2 agonist or opioid to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present anaesthetic study was to evaluate the clinico-physiological effects of ketamine alone and in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present anaesthetic study was conducted on 18 (eighteen) healthy dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (K, DK and BK) with six animals in each group. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/ kg was administered intramuscularly 15 minutes prior to anaesthetic study to all the animals. In group K, ketamine HCl alone was administered @ 5 mg/kg by slow i/v and kept as control. In group DK and BK, after administration of atropine sulphate 15 minutes later dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg i/m and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg i/m were administered respectively. Ten minutes later ketamine HCl was administered @ 5 mg/kg slowly intravenously in both group DK and BK to induce surgical stage of general anaesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. The physiological parameters (rectal temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate) were recorded before anaesthetic study at 0 min. and at 10 minutes after preanaesthetic administration and then at 10, 20, 40, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes after ketamine anaesthesia. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 15.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation was quicker in group DK followed by group K and BK. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery in group DK was significantly (p&lt;0.01) longer than in group K and BK. The degree of analgesia was excellent in group DK and good in group K and BK. The extent of muscle relaxation was excellent in group DK, good in group BK and was poor in group K. The physiological parameters showed transient changes which compensated and remained within normal range during the observation period. The above anaesthetic study suggests that ketamine in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol can be safely used for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-ketamine can be used safely for longer duration of surgical procedures in dogs.</div>

Evaluation of Clinico-physiological Effects of Ketamine Alone and in Combination with Dexmedetomidine or Butorphanol in Atropinized Dogs

<div>Background: As cats undergo stress at the time of presentation before surgery and therefore sedation is required often. It is very difficult to choose a balanced anaesthetic protocol during the surgical intervention in the case of a cat. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of ketamine hydrochloride in combination with midazolam, dexmedetomidine and butorphanol as balanced anaesthesia on clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in the surgical management of cats undergoing neutering. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study was performed on 18 clinical cases of cats which were brought to the Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry (CVSc and AH), Central Agricultural University (CAU), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram for elective surgery such as neutering. Cats were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, i.e. Gr. A, Gr. B and Gr. C. Animals were premedicated with glycopyrrolate @ 0.01 mg/kg, i/m. After 10 minutes of premedication, in Gr. A ketamine hydrochloride @15 mg/kg and midazolam @ 0.5 mg/kg, in Gr. B ketamine hydrochloride @10 mg/ kg and dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg /kg and in Gr. C ketamine hydrochloride @ 5 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg/kg and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly. Clinico-physiological and haemato-biochemical profiles were evaluated at 0 minute (baseline), then at 15, 30 and 60 minutes after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In the case of time for induction, the quality of induction, assessment of peri-operative analgesia, depth of anaesthesia and quality of recovery there was no significant difference among all three groups. In Gr. B, animals showed significantly higher duration of recumbency (DOE) and recovery. The assessment of peri-operative analgesic effect among the groups revealed that analgesia during the perioperative period appeared best in Gr. C protocol. In regards to depth of anaesthesia, ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol group showed a better result. Rectal temperature decreased significantly (P&gt;0.05) up to 60th minutes in Gr. A, but it remained within the physiological range. Heart rate raised significantly (p&lt;0.05) from the baseline (0 minutes) onwards and decreased significantly (p&lt;0.05) till the end (60 minutes) of the study in Gr. C. The respiration rate was significantly (p&lt;0.01) different in between time intervals for all three groups. No significant difference was observed on haemato-biochemical observation except glucose level which significantly increased after induction of anaesthesia. In conclusion, treatment with ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol led to acceptable sedation and mild changes in clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in comparison to the other two groups.</div>

Evaluation of Ketamine Hydrochloride in Combination with Midazolam, Dexmedetomidine and Butorphanol as Balanced Anaesthesia in Cats

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: It is usually accepted that some degree of post-surgical pain will be commonly present. There are different pain scales adopted in veterinary practice to assess these behavioural signs to measure pain. VAS had been used in human medicine for many years to measure pain and was found equally satisfactory in dogs. Pre-emptive analgesia (PEA) is grasping popularity in recent days, the concept of which originated during the time of growing appreciation of dynamic characteristics of pain pathway for obtaining effective analgesia prior to the surgical trauma. 
Methods:&nbsp;The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of tramadol, pentazocine lactate and meloxicam as pre-emptive analgesics in dogs premedicated with glycopyrrolate, induction and maintenance with propofol continuous rate infusion (CRI) for certain clinical and physiological parameters. The animals were randomly divided into three equal groups viz. Group-T, Group-P and Group-M comprising six animals in each group and all were premedicated with glycopyrrolate, I/M. After 10 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration, pre-emptive analgesia was given (Tramadol in Group-T, Pentazocine lactate in Group-P and Meloxicam in Group-M intravenously). After 10 minutes of pre-emptive analgesic administration, induction was achieved with propofol I/V and also maintained by CRI method up to 1 hour. Clinical and physiological parameters were recorded at 0 (baseline) minute before premedication, thereafter at 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr and 3 hr after pre-emptive analgesic administration.&nbsp; 
Result:&nbsp;There was no sedation observed within 10 min following pre-emptive analgesia and quality of sedation was recorded as score-0 in all the groups. Time for induction was significantly higher in group-M as compared to group-T and P. Quality of induction in all the groups ranged from score-0 to score1, assessment of peri-operative analgesia was recorded as score-0 in group-T and group-P, whereas in group-M it ranged from score-0 to score-1. Depth of anaesthesia was recorded as score-0 to score-1 in all the groups and quality of recovery was recorded as score-0 to score-1 in group-T and group-P and score-1 to score-2 in group-M. Assessment of post-operative analgesia by VAS was significantly lower in group-T as compared to group-P and M. In all the three groups, the heart rate increased significantly at 30 min interval and thereafter it decreased significantly till the end of the study. Respiratory rate also decreased significantly till 1 hr and thereafter it gradually increased till the end of study in all the groups. Rectal temperature, SpO2, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure decreased significantly at 30 min and thereafter increased gradually and approached base values in all the groups.</div>

Evaluation of Tramadol, Pentazocine Lactate and Meloxicam as Pre-emptive Analgesics for Pain Management in Canine Ovariohysterectomy

<div>Background: Respiratory diseases in calves are causing worldwide economic losses for the beef industry. This study was planned to determine the serum protein fractions and A/G ratio in calves with clinically diagnosed pneumonia, and evaluate the possibility uses of these parameters as clinical diagnostic parameters. 
 
Methods: The 34 calves with respiratory system problems and 10 healthy calves without clinical pneumonia symptoms were used as materials. The obtained serum samples were used for total protein and serum protein electrophoresis. 
 
Result: Albumin, &alpha;1-globulin percentages and A/G ratio decreased in the patient group (p&le;0.01), other globulin fractions were higher in the patient group (p&le;0.01), for % g values. According to concentration results, it was found that while albumin did not show a significant difference, &alpha;1-globulin (p&le;0.05) and A / G ratio (p&le;0.01) decreased in the patient group. In addition, other globulin fractions and total protein levels were higher in patient groups (p&le;0.01). As a result, the serum protein fractions should be evaluated as a useful biochemical blood parameter for diagnosis and follow up of lung diseases especially in calves.</div>