Greengram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is one of the most important pulse crops cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in South and Southeast Asia. It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 22. The crop is predominantly self-pollinated with limited natural outcrossing (1-5%) and exhibits wide genetic variability for traits such as yield, maturity duration and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Greengram is characterized by a short life cycle (60-70 days), making it highly suitable for multiple cropping systems and climate-resilient agriculture (Patel et al., 2022). It is also an excellent source of plant protein (20-25%), essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals and plays a vital role in improving soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation.
       
About 4.9 million hectares (49 lakh ha) area is covered under greengram cultivation in India, with an annual production of approximately 2.6 million tonnes. Over recent years, particularly between 2016 and 2017, the acreage under mungbean has increased substantially due to rising demand and government initiatives (Bhat et al., 2023). Rajasthan contributes nearly 48% of the total area and 42% of production, followed by major states such as Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, collectively accounting for nearly 90% of national production. Pulses play a critical role in sustainable agriculture by improving soil health, enhancing biodiversity and supporting intercropping systems (Jayaramasoundari, 2024).
       
With increasing population pressure and a shift towards plant-based diets, pulses are emerging as a low-carbon and climate-resilient food source, contributing significantly to nutritional security. It is projected that by 2050, India will require nearly 39 million tonnes of pulses to meet domestic demand. Pulses, including greengram, are rich in protein and form an essential component of Indian diets, particularly for vegetarian populations (Garud et al., 2023). They also contribute to income generation and livelihood security of small and marginal farmers (Singh et al., 2026). Despite its importance, the productivity of greengram in India remains sub-optimal due to several constraints. In Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in Kupwara district, greengram cultivation is limited and yields are significantly lower than the national average. The average productivity in the Union Territory is about 247 kg ha^-1, whereas in Kupwara district it is only 189 kg ha^-1. The major constraints responsible for low productivity include non-availability of improved varieties, erratic rainfall, cultivation on marginal lands, use of low-quality seeds, poor crop establishment methods (broadcasting), lack of seed treatment with biofertilizers (Rhizobium and PSB), inadequate nutrient and micronutrient management and high incidence of pests and diseases, particularly yellow mosaic virus (YMV).
       
Cluster frontline demonstrations (CFLDs), implemented under the national food security mission (NFSM) by the indian council of agricultural research (ICAR), have emerged as an effective extension approach to bridge the yield gap by demonstrating location-specific improved technologies at farmers’ fields (Kumar et al., 2019) and Singh et al., (2022). CFLDs provide an opportunity to evaluate the performance of improved varieties and scientific crop management practices under real farming conditions while enhancing farmer awareness and adoption Annu et al., (2024) and Jakhar et al., (2025). In this context, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Kupwara initiated Cluster Frontline Demonstrations on greengram to address the prevailing production constraints through integrated technological interventions. These included the introduction of improved variety KM-2241, which is early maturing, high yielding and moderately resistant to yellow mosaic virus, along with improved agronomic practices such as line sowing, seed treatment, balanced nutrient management and integrated pest management.
       
However, limited systematic studies are available on the impact of CFLDs on greengram productivity and profitability under the specific agro-ecological conditions of the Inner Kashmir Himalayan region. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of improved production technologies demonstrated through CFLDs in comparison with farmers’ traditional practices and to quantify yield gaps, technology gaps and economic benefits under real farm conditions in Kupwara district of Jammu and Kashmir.

Study area and experimental site
 
The present investigation was conducted under the Cluster Frontline Demonstration (CFLD) programme by Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Kupwara, during the Kharif seasons of 2021-22 and 2022-23 in Kupwara district of Jammu and Kashmir, India. The study area falls under the Inner Kashmir Himalayan agro-ecological region, characterized by temperate climatic conditions, moderate rainfall and undulating topography. The demonstrations were carried out under rainfed conditions in selected villages, namely Natnussa, Deedikote, Ogbal and Jumagund, representing major greengram-growing pockets of the district (Map 1).


       
The region receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 700-900 mm, mostly concentrated during the monsoon period (June-September), with mean temperature ranging between 18-30°C during the cropping season. Such climatic variability significantly influences crop performance and yield stability in greengram cultivation.
 
Soil characteristics
 
The soils of the experimental sites were predominantly clay loam in texture with medium fertility status. Soil analysis indicated slightly acidic to neutral reaction (pH 6.5-7.2), medium organic carbon content (0.50-0.65%), available nitrogen (280-320 kg ha^-1), phosphorus (18-22 kg ha^-1) and potassium (160-190 kg ha^-1). Micronutrient deficiency, particularly zinc, was observed in some locations, necessitating its application under improved technology treatments.
 
Selection of farmers and demonstration layout
 
Frontline demonstrations were conducted on farmers’ fields following a cluster approach, wherein contiguous farmers were selected to enhance visibility and adoption of improved technologies. A total of 50 demonstrations covering 20 ha area were conducted over two years, involving 30 farmers in 2021-22 and 40 farmers in 2022-23. Each demonstration was laid out on 0.4 ha area and an adjacent 0.4 ha plot under farmers’ traditional practices was maintained as a control (local check) for comparison. Uniformity between demonstration and farmers’ plots was ensured by selecting fields with similar soil type, topography and cropping history. Details of green gram grown under FLD and farmer’s practice tabulated in Table 1.


 
Experimental design and treatments
 
The study followed a paired plot comparison approach under real farming conditions, which is commonly adopted in CFLD programmes. The treatments consisted of:
 
• Improved technology (IT): Demonstration plots with commended package of practices.
 
• Farmers’ practice (FP): Local cultivation practices followed by farmers.
The improved technology package included:
• Use of high-yielding greengram variety KM-2241 (released in 2009).
• Line sowing (30 cm x 10 cm spacing) instead of broadcasting.
• Seed treatment with systemic insecticide followed by biofertilizers (Rhizobium and PSB @ 500 g ha^-1).
• Integrated nutrient management (FYM @ 3 t ha^-1 + RDF @ 25:50:25 kg NPK ha^-1 + ZnSO₄ @ 10 kg ha^-1 + foliar spray of 2% DAP at pre-flowering stage).
• Weed management using Pendimethalin @ 1 kg ha^-1 as pre-emergence followed by intercultivation at 35-40 DAS.
• Need-based plant protection measures.
 
Crop establishment and management practices
 
Sowing of greengram was carried out during the last week of June in 2021-22 and first week of July in 2022-23, depending on monsoon onset. The crop was sown in rows with a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 10 cm between plants. Weeding and thinning operations were performed at 10-15 DAS and 35-40 DAS to maintain optimum plant population. Other agronomic practices such as irrigation (wherever supplemental irrigation was possible), pest and disease management and harvesting were carried out as per recommended package of practices.
 
Data collection and observations
 
Data on growth and yield attributes were recorded from randomly selected plants in each plot, including: Plant height (cm), Number of branches per plant, Number of pods per plant, Number of seeds per pod and 100-seed weight (g). Grain yield was recorded from each plot and expressed in q ha^-1. Economic parameters such as cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio were calculated based on prevailing market prices.
 
Yield gap analysis and indices
 
The performance of demonstrated technologies was evaluated using standard indices such as technology gap, extension gap and technology index, following established procedures (Meena and Singh, 2017). The potential yield (12 q ha^-1) was considered based on varietal performance reported under research station conditions of SKUAST-Kashmir.
The parameters were calculated using the following formulae:
 

Extension gap (EG) = Demonstration yield (DY) - Farmers’ practice yield (FPY)
 
Technology gap (TG) = Potential yield (PY) - Demonstration yield (DY)

 
Where,
DY = Demonstration yield (q ha^-1).
FPY = Farmers’ practice yield (q ha^-1).
PY = Potential yield (q ha^-1).
 
Statistical analysis
 
Descriptive statistical analysis was employed to compare the performance of improved technologies and farmers’ practices. Mean values, percentage increase over farmers’ practices and economic indicators were calculated. Although CFLD studies are primarily extension-oriented, basic comparative analysis was performed to ensure reliability and consistency of results.

Growth, yield attributes and yield
 
The results of the present study clearly indicated that greengram growers in Kupwara district responded positively to the cluster frontline demonstrations (CFLDs), which facilitated the adoption of improved production technologies. The demonstration plots (Improved Technologies, IT) recorded superior performance in all growth and yield-attributing traits, including plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and 100-seed weight, as compared to farmers’ practice (FP) and it’s with Mean ± SD (Table 2).


       
For instance, the average plant height under improved technology was 32.5 cm compared to 24 cm under farmers’ practice, while the number of pods per plant increased from 11.15 (FP) to 25.0 (IT), indicating a substantial improvement in crop growth and reproductive potential. Similarly, the 100-seed weight under improved technology was approximately 5.95 g (corrected average) compared to 3.5 g under farmers’ practice, reflecting better grain filling and seed development.
       
This improvement in growth and yield attributes can be attributed to the combined effect of improved variety (KM-2241), balanced nutrient management, proper plant spacing through line sowing, seed treatment with biofertilizers and effective pest and disease management, which enhanced resource-use efficiency and crop vigor. The enhanced performance of KM-2241 may also be associated with its genetic potential for higher yield and moderate resistance to yellow mosaic virus (YMV), which is a major constraint in the region. These findings are in agreement with earlier reports by Singh and Singh (2021) and Amuthaselvi et al., (2023), who observed significant improvement in growth and yield attributes under improved production technologies in greengram.
       
Grain yield of greengram varied across years, which may be attributed to inter-annual variability in rainfall distribution, soil moisture availability and pest/disease incidence under rainfed conditions. Similar variability in greengram yield has been reported by Kumar and Boparai (2020). However, despite such variability, demonstration plots consistently outperformed farmers’ practices in both years (Table 3). The average grain yield under improved technology ranged from 10.5 to 11.5 q ha^-1 compared to 5.5 to 6.0 q ha^-1 under farmers’ practice, resulting in yield enhancement of 91.00% and 91.66% during 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively (increment percent and yield gap in Table 3a). This substantial yield increase clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of CFLDs in bridging the yield gap through adoption of improved technologies. Similar yield improvements under frontline demonstrations have been reported by Singh and Singh (2021) and Chandra (2010).




 
Technology gap
 
The technology gap, which represents the difference between potential yield and demonstration yield, was observed to be 1.5 q ha^-1 during 2021-22 and 0.5 q ha^-1 during 2022-23 (Table 4). The reduction in technology gap in the second year indicates better adaptation and adoption of improved technologies by farmers, as well as relatively favourable climatic conditions. However, the existence of a technology gap suggests that further refinement of location-specific management practices is required to fully exploit the yield potential of greengram. The observed technology gap may be attributed to variability in soil fertility status, uneven rainfall distribution and differences in management practices across locations, as also reported by Amuthaselvi et al., (2023) and Borah et al., (2025). Therefore, site-specific nutrient and crop management strategies are essential to minimize this gap and enhance productivity under rainfed conditions.


 
Extension gap
 
The extension gap, which indicates the difference between demonstration yield and farmers’ yield, was recorded as 5.0 q ha^-1 and 5.0 q ha-1 during 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively (Table 4). This substantial extension gap highlights the wide disparity between improved technologies and traditional farming practices, emphasizing the need for effective dissemination of scientific crop production technologies among farmers. The results clearly indicate that large-scale adoption of improved varieties, scientific nutrient management and plant protection measures can significantly enhance greengram productivity in the region. Similar extension gaps in pulse crops have been reported by Singh et al., (2026); Kumar and Boparai (2020) and Bhat et al., (2023), who emphasized the importance of strengthening extension services to improve technology adoption.
 
Technology index
 
The technology index, which reflects the feasibility and adoption of improved technologies, was found to be 12.5% during 2021-22 and 4.16% during 2022-23 (Table 4). A decreasing trend in technology index indicates improved performance and higher acceptability of demonstrated technologies under farmers’ conditions. The lower value in the second year suggests better adaptability of the technology package and favourable environmental conditions. These values are considerably lower than those reported by Kumar et al., (2019) and Kumar et al., (2023), who observed technology index values ranging from 55.00 to 70.85%, indicating the higher feasibility and effectiveness of the demonstrated technologies in the present study. However, limited access to quality inputs, variability in soil fertility and sub-optimal crop management practices continue to constrain the realization of full yield potential in Kupwara district. Therefore, integrated approaches involving improved seed availability, balanced fertilization and efficient water and pest management are essential for sustainable intensification of greengram production.
 
Economics
 
The economic analysis of greengram cultivation under Cluster Frontline Demonstrations (CFLDs) clearly indicated the superiority of improved technologies over farmers’ traditional practices (Table 5). Although the cost of cultivation was relatively higher in demonstration plots due to the use of improved inputs such as quality seed, fertilizers, micronutrients and plant protection measures, the overall economic returns were substantially enhanced. During 2021-22, the demonstration plots recorded a gross return of Rs. 94,500 ha^-1 and net return of Rs. 52,500 ha^-1 with a benefit-cost (B:C) ratio of 2.01, compared to Rs. 37,500 ha^-1 gross return, Rs. 15,160 ha^-1 net return and B:C ratio of 0.67 under farmers’ practices. Similarly, in 2022-23, the improved technology plots recorded a gross return of Rs. 1,03,500 ha^-1 and net return of Rs. 73,160 ha^-1 with a B:C ratio of 2.41, whereas farmers’ practices resulted in Rs. 40,000 ha^-1 gross return, Rs. 17,500 ha^-1 net return and B:C ratio of 0.77. The higher economic returns under improved technology can be attributed to significantly higher grain yield, better input-use efficiency and improved crop management practices. The increase in net returns ranged from approximately 246% to 318% over farmers’ practices, indicating strong economic viability of CFLD interventions.


               
The improved variety KM-2241, combined with scientific crop management practices such as line sowing, seed treatment with biofertilizers, balanced nutrient application and integrated pest management, contributed to enhanced productivity and profitability. The moderate resistance of KM-2241 to yellow mosaic virus (YMV) and tolerance to pod borer further reduced yield losses and improved economic returns under field conditions. These findings are in close agreement with earlier studies by Singh et al., (2017) and Natarajan et al., (2024) who reported significant improvement in profitability under frontline demonstrations in mungbean. Similarly, Kumar and Boparai (2020) observed B:C ratios ranging from 1.92 to 2.44 under improved technologies, which are comparable with the present findings. Meena and Singh (2017) also reported higher net income (Rs. 46,030 ha^-1) and B:C ratio (4.3) under improved practices compared to farmers’ methods. Kumar et al., (2019) further reported B:C ratios ranging from 3.20 to 6.56 in greengram under improved varieties. The results clearly demonstrate that adoption of improved greengram production technologies under CFLDs not only enhances yield but also significantly improves farm income and livelihood security. The widespread adoption of such technologies can play a crucial role in horizontal expansion (increase in area) and vertical expansion (increase in productivity) of greengram cultivation in Kupwara district and similar agro-ecological regions.

The results of the present study clearly demonstrate that Cluster Frontline Demonstrations (CFLDs) significantly enhanced the productivity and profitability of greengram cultivation in Kupwara district through the adoption of improved technologies. The introduction of the improved variety KM-2241, along with recommended scientific crop management practices, resulted in substantial improvement in yield, economic returns and overall farm efficiency compared to farmers’ traditional practices. The higher net returns and benefit-cost ratio observed under improved technology indicate its strong economic viability and potential for improving livelihood security of small and marginal farmers. The CFLDs also played a crucial role in enhancing farmers’ awareness, skill development and adoption of improved agricultural practices, thereby facilitating the horizontal spread of the technology in the region. Although the presence of a considerable extension gap highlights the need for strengthening extension services and wider dissemination of improved technologies, the relatively lower technology gap and technology index indicate good adaptability and feasibility of the demonstrated package under farmers’ field conditions. Therefore, scaling up of CFLDs, strengthening input delivery systems and promoting location-specific agronomic practices are essential to bridge the existing yield gap and ensure sustainable greengram production in the Inner Kashmir Himalayan region. Future research should focus on refinement of crop management practices under rainfed conditions, integration of climate-resilient technologies and evaluation of improved varieties across diverse agro-ecological niches to further enhance productivity and stability.

ICAR, ATARI, Zone-1 Ludhiana, Directorate of Extension SKUAST-Kashmir and DARS, SKUAST-Kashmir, provided support for this work.
 
Disclaimers
 
The opinions and findings presented in this article are those of the authors alone and may not be representative of those of the organizations with which they are affiliated. Although the writers are in charge of the information’s correctness and comprehensiveness, they disclaim all obligation for any losses, whether direct or indirect, that may arise from using this content.

According to the authors, they have no conflicts of interest with regard to the publication of this work. No sponsorship or funding had an impact on the study’s design, data collection, analysis, publication decision, or manuscript preparation.