Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek], widely known as greengram or goldengram, is a nutritionally rich legume crop valued for its high protein content, adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions, short growth cycle and contribution to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. Widely cultivated in India and Southeast Asia, mungbean is an essential component of sustainable agricultural systems, contributing to food and nutritional security.
       
Despite its many benefits, the productivity and quality of mungbean are often compromised due to physiological deterioration, biochemical changes and its vulnerability to insect pests and pathogens, particularly during storage (Copeland and McDonald, 1985). These factors collectively reduce seed viability and vigor, leading to significant post harvest losses and undermining the reliability of seed supply chains (Pavithra  et al., 2025). Such challenges highlight the need for interventions that not only safeguard seed quality but also align with broader goals of process safety and environmental protection.
       
Seed treatment has emerged asa targeted and resource-efficient solution to combat storage losses and enhance seed performance (Kumar, 2007). Unlike traditional soil applications of agrochemicals, seed treatment directly addresses seed pathogen interface, offering precise protection to the seed while reducing environmental contamination by chemical inputs thus contributingto sustainable crop production systems. Seed treatment therefore stands as a critical strategy for maintaining seed quality during storage and improving mungbean productivity. While chemical treatments deliver rapid efficacy, their prolonged use raises concerns regarding ecological safety, soil health and human exposure risks. In contrast, organic and bio based treatments, though slower in action, provide eco friendly alternatives that align with sustainability imperatives (Pavithra et al., 2024) and they are also beneficial to the soil health (Raj and Raj, 2021). Furthermore, producers must transcend profit-driven motives and must prioritise environmental stewardship and produce safe food (Gupta et al., 2024).  An integrated approach combining chemical and organic treatments can strike a balance, ensuring effective pest and pathogen management while minimizing ecological footprints and safeguarding health. This hybrid method offers a feasible path toward environmentally responsible agricultural practices while addressing the challenges of land degradation and gradual transition (Singh et al., 2026).
       
Despite several studies on integrated seed treatment, the available literature on combination of organics with chemicals seed treatment to reduce chemical dependency under ambient storage conditions is limited. Therefore, the present study aims at evaluating the storability of mungbean seeds over 16 months under ambient storage conditions of Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, which is characterized by extremes of hot summers and humid monsoon seasons.

The study was conducted at the Seed Technology Laboratory, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. Seeds were stored under controlled ambient laboratory conditions, with temperature maintained between 22-25°C and relative humidity at 60-65%. Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek, variety Sweta] seed lots were obtained from the Legume Section of the university in March 2021.
       
Seeds were dried to a safe moisture level, treated according to experimental protocols, packed in polythene bags and stored on wooden racks under ambient conditions beginning in April 2021.Nine treatments, including a control, were imposed on the seed lot and arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications: T0: Control, T1: Bavistin + Cypermethrin + Rhizobium + Trichoderma, T2: Bavistin + Cypermethrin + Rhizobium + Trichoderma + Neem oil, T3: Bavistin + Cypermethrin + Rhizobium + Trichoderma + Neem oil + Camphor, T4: Rhizobium + Trichoderma + Neem oil + Camphor, T5: Bavistin + Cypermethrin + Rhizobium + Camphor, T6: Cypermethrin + Rhizobium + Trichoderma + Camphor, T7: Bavistin + Rhizobium + Neem oil + Camphor, T8: Bavistin + Cypermethrin + Trichoderma + Neem oil. Bavistin was applied at 3 g/kg seed, Cypermethrin at 3 mL/kg seed, neem oil at 5 ml/kg seed and camphor at 4 g/kg seed. Bio agents were obtained from University’s department of Soil Science and applied at recommended doses (Rhizobium-25 g/kg; Trichoderma viride 10/ g/kg). All chemical treatments were carried out in compliance with institutional biosafety guidelines, with protective equipment used during handling. Seed quality was assessed initially and at bimonthly intervals up to August 2022. The following parameters were recorded.
 
Germination percentage
 
Determined using the between paper method as per ISTA rules (2014). Four replications of 100 seeds each were incubated at 25°C and 90-95% relative humidity. Normal seedlings, including hard seeds, were counted on the 8^th day.
 
Seed vigour index I and II
 
Calculated following method of Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973). Vigour index I was obtained by multiplying germination percentage by mean seedling length (cm), while Index II was calculated by multiplying germination percentage by mean seedling dry weight (g).
 
Fungal infection percentage
 
Assessed on the 8^th day of the germination test by inspecting blotter sheets for pathogen growth. The percentage was calculated based on infected seeds relative to the total tested.
 
Insect infestation percentage
 
Determined by inspecting 100 seeds per replication for visible insect damage. The percentage was calculated based on infested seeds relative to the total tested.Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in a completely randomized design (Steel and Torrie, 1960).

Germination performance
 
All seed quality parameters exhibited a declining trend with increasing storage duration, except for disease infection (%) and insect infestation (%), which rose progressively over time (Fig 1).


       
At the onset of storage, all treatments recorded an average germination of 92%, which declined steadily across the 16 month period. Overall, germination decreased by approximately 31% during storage. Among the treatments, T3 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) maintained the highest germination at the end of storage (70%), representing a 37% improvement over the control (T0: 51%). The second best performance was observed in T4 (Rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor), which achieved 67.75% germination, 32.8% higher than the control. These findings corroborate earlier reports by Vereja and Rai (2015); Ovalesha et al., (2017); Jitender et al., (2018) and Bhati et al., (2021), on leguminous crops like chickpea, mungbean and cowpea, highlighting the synergistic effect of combining chemical and organic seed treatments to enhance resilience under ambient storage conditions.
       
The decline in germination relative to Indian Minimum seed certification standards was also noteworthy. After 8 months of storage (December 2021), the control treatment fell below the Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards (IMSCS) threshold for mungbean (70.25%). In contrast, T3 maintained germination above IMSCS until 16 months, while T4 and T8 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + trichoderma + neem oil) sustained germination above the threshold up to 14 months (Fig 1).
       
Comparable results were reported by Reddy et al., (1994), who demonstrated that integrated seed treatments could preserve viability for up to 18 months under ambient conditions in Hyderabad. However, the climatic contrast between Hyderabad’s relatively stable environment and Kanpur’s extremes of hot summers and damp winters underscores the greater challenge of maintaining seed viability in the present study. This highlights the importance of adopting integrated treatment strategies that combine chemical and biological agents to ensure seed quality, safety and sustainability under diverse storage environments.
 
Seed vigour index
 
Seed vigour declined progressively with the advancement of storage duration. At the beginning of storage, all treatments recorded a seed vigour index I (SVI I) of 4035, which decreased to an average of 1140.32 after 16 months (Fig 2).  Among the treatments, T3 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) maintained the highest SVI I (1522.76) at the end of storage, compared to T: Control (654.81). The overall decline in SVI I was 62.26% for T3, whereas the control recorded a sharper reduction of 83.77%.


       
A similar trend was observed for seed vigour index II (SVI II) (Fig 3). Initial values averaged 23across treatments in April 2021, declining to 9.93 by the end of storage, representing a 56.82% reduction. The best performance was again observed in T3, which retained an SVI II of 12.53, 119% higher than the control (5.72).


       
These results confirm that integrated seed treatments combining chemical and biological agents are more effective in preserving vigour under ambient storage conditions. The findings are consistent with earlier studies on leguminous crops like mungbean and chickepea by Vanangamudi et al., (2003); Dubey (2007); Renugadevi et al., (2008) and Jitender et al., (2018); Jadhav et al., (2024) which demonstrated that combined treatments enhance seed resilience against biotic and abiotic stresses. The preserved vigour observed in the present study can be attributed to improved germination rates, stronger root and shoot development and greater seedling dry weight, all of which contribute to sustained seed quality and safer, more sustainable storage practices.
 
Disease infection (%)
 
Disease infection (%) increased progressively with storage duration, although the overall average across treatments remained low (1.74% at the end of storage in August 2022; Fig 4) compare to control. At the beginning of storage, all treatments were free from infection. However, as storage advanced, Fusarium sp. and green mould were detected. The control (T0) first exhibited infection after two months (0.33%), which rose steadily to 0.67% at four months, 1.67% at eight month, 3.00% at twelthmonth and reached 5.00% after sixteen months of storage.


       
In contrast, integrated treatments demonstrated strong protective effects. T3 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) and T4 (Rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) kept seeds free from infection for up to 14 months. Thereafter, minimal infection was observed: 0.33% in T3 and 0.67% in T4 at 14 months, which increased only slightly to 0.67% and 1.00%, respectively, by the end of storage. Thus, T3 recorded the lowest infection (0.67%) after 16 months, compared to the highest infection in the control (5.00%).
       
These findings are consistent with earlier reports by Vijay and Dadlani (2003) and Joyijit et al., (2007), who documented the prevalence of storage fungi such as Fusarium sp. and Penicillium digitatum in untreated seeds of mungbean and soybean. Similarly, Singh et al., (2014); Vereja and Rai (2015); Ovalesha et al., (2017); Jitender et al., (2018) and Gupta et al., (2024) demonstrated in mungbean and cowpea that integrated seed treatments significantly reduced pathogen incidence during storage. The reduction observed in the present study can be attributed to the inhibition of seed borne pathogens, which helps preserve membrane integrity, delay deterioration and ensure safer, more sustainable seed storage practices.
 
Insect infestation (%)
 
No insect activity was observed at the beginning of storage across all treatments. As storage progressed, however, irreversible damage caused by the bruchid beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis) was detected (Fig 5). The control (T0) first showed signs of infestation after two months (0.24%), which increased steadily to 0.97% at eight months, 2.85% at twelve months and reached 8.07% after sixteen months of storage (Fig 6).




       
Several treatments delayed infestation effectively. T5, T6 and T7 maintained seeds free from insect damage for up to 12 months. The longest protection was observed in T3 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) and T4 (Rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor), which remained uninfested for 14 months. Thereafter, infestation levels rose modestly: 1.00% in T3 and 2.00% in T4 at 14 months, increasing to 3.00% and 3.25%, respectively, by the end of storage.
       
At 16 months, the highest infestation was recorded in the control (14.72%), while the lowest was observed in T3 (3.00%), underscoring the effectiveness of integrated treatments in suppressing bruchid beetle damage. These results highlight the importance of combining chemical and biological agents to extend protection against storage pests, thereby ensuring safer seed storage and reducing reliance on synthetic insecticides alone.
       
Consistent with the present findings, Dubey and Singh (2013); Kumar et al., (2018) and Saini et al., (2022) also reported that combination seed treatments effectively protect stored seeds against insect infestation in mungbean. Integrated approaches that combine chemical insecticides with organic agents provide dual benefits: they act as repellents to deter insect entry and feeding, while also exerting toxic effects on insects that come into direct contact with treated seeds. Camphor extracted from Cinnamomum camphora also has repellence activity against various insects (Fu et al., 2015).
       
This synergy not only reduces infestation levels but also minimizes reliance on synthetic chemicals alone, thereby contributing to safer storage practices and more sustainable seed management systems.
       
A comparison between the superior performing treatment (T3) and control (T0) is given in Table 1. Each component of the superior treatment T3 addresses a distinct pathway of seed deterioration, creating a multi-layered protection system. Also, a mechanistic basis underlying the observed superiority of T3. Accordingly, in a synergistic outcome the six components operate across four complementary pathways-fungicidal (Bavistin + trichoderma + rhizobium), insecticidal (Cypermethrin), fumigant/repellent (Camphor) and growth-regulatory (Neem oil) - a redundant, multi-layered protection. No partial treatment replicates this coverage. Taken together, these tables establish an evidence-based framework for understanding the efficacy of T3 seed treatment.

This study demonstrates that combining organic and chemical seed treatments effectively extend seed viability and preserves the quality of mungbean seeds during storage under ambient conditions. The superior performance of T3 (Bavistin + cypermethrin + rhizobium + trichoderma + neem oil + camphor) is mechanistically explained by the synergistic fungicidal action of bavistin and trichoderma, the insecticidal action of cypermethrin and camphor and the growth-regulatory activity of azadirachtin from neem oil, complemented by the biological conditioning role of rhizobium. Organic treatments contribute to slowing physiological aging, while chemical agents provide essential protection against environmental stress, thereby ensuring redundancy in protective mechanisms. The integrated approach offers a practical pathway toward sustainable agriculture, balancing the immediate efficacy of chemical inputs with the long term benefits of organic practices. Such synergy fosters both short term productivity and long term sustainability.
       
Future studies may further strengthen these findings by incorporating biochemical assessments, including parameters such as electrical conductivity and lipid peroxidation, to better understand the physiological mechanisms governing seed quality during storage. Additionally, evaluating residual effects of applied chemicals in treated seeds under field conditions will be essential to ensure safety and environmental compliance.
       
Given the benefits observed, after biochemical and chemical residue investigations the seed treatment combination may be recommended for wide-scale farmer adoption.

The authors are grateful to the Department of Seed Science and Technology at Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and technology, Kanpur for providing the necessary facilities for conducting the experiment.
 
Disclaimers
 
The opinions and conclusions presented in this article belong solely to the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of their affiliated institutions. While the authors have made every effort to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information, they assume no responsibility for any direct or indirect losses arising from its use.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. Nofunding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish,or preparation of the manuscript.