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Full Research Article

Influence of Growing Media and Seed Pre-treatments on Germination and Seedling Growth of Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)

K
Kumaresan Marappan1,*
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9784-8930
P
P. Shanmugasundaram2
R
R. Sridhar3
G
G. Madhumita4
S
S. Kamalakkannan5
1Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
2School of Pharmaceutical Sieneses, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
3School of Mechanical Engineering, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
4School of Management Studies, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
5Department of Computer Applications, School of Computing Sciences, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Seed germination and seedling vigour in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) are influenced by growing media composition and seed pre-sowing treatments. Optimizing these factors is essential for producing vigorous and uniform rootstock seedlings for successful orchard establishment.

Methods: A nursery experiment was conducted during 2025-2026 at the School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Chennai. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design with five growing media and four seed pre-sowing treatments, replicated thrice. Growing media comprised combinations of red soil, sand, cocopeat and vermicompost, while seed treatments included control, water soaking for 12 and 24 h and cow dung slurry for 12 h. Observations on germination, seedling growth, vigour indices and survival percentage were recorded. Data were analysed using ANOVA and treatment means were compared using LSD at P≤0.05.

Result: Growing media, seed pre-sowing treatments and their interaction significantly influenced all parameters. The combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) with water soaking for 24 h (M5T3) recorded the earliest germination (9.06 days), minimum days to 50% germination (13.54 days), highest germination (96.84%), shoot length (22.36 cm), root length (14.36 cm), number of leaves (11.60), vigour index I (2166), vigour index II (89) and survival percentage (96%), demonstrating its suitability for raising vigorous cashew rootstock seedlings under nursery conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an economically important tropical plantation crop of the family Anacardiaceae, cultivated for its edible kernels and valuable industrial by-products (Salehi et al., 2019). Cashew kernels are rich in proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and essential minerals, whereas the cashew apple and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) possess significant food, pharmaceutical and industrial applications due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial and polymer-forming properties (Rico et al., 2016; Kyei et al., 2023; Kumaresan et al., 2026). Increasing global demand has expanded cashew cultivation in major producing countries, including India, Vietnam, Brazil, Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire (Oliveira et al., 2020).
       
In India, orchard productivity largely depends on the availability of vigorous and genetically superior planting material (Sarath et al., 2025). Production of quality nursery seedlings is essential for successful grafting, rapid field establishment and improved orchard performance. Vigorous rootstocks exhibit greater nutrient uptake, improved root development and higher transplant survival, whereas poor-quality seedlings often result in weak establishment and reduced productivity (Rasool et al., 2020). Seed germination is a complex physiological process involving water imbibition, membrane repair, activation of respiratory metabolism, hydrolytic enzymes and reserve mobilization leading to radicle emergence (El-Maarouf-Bouteau, 2022). These processes are strongly influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the growing medium, particularly moisture availability, aeration, porosity and nutrient status (Será and Hnilička, 2023). Cocopeat improves water-holding capacity and aeration, vermicompost supplies readily available nutrients, beneficial microorganisms and growth-promoting substances, while sand enhances drainage and root-zone aeration, together creating favourable conditions for seed germination and seedling growth (Al-Ajlouni et al., 2024). Likewise, seed pre-sowing treatments such as hydropriming enhance seed hydration, membrane repair and reserve mobilization, thereby accelerating germination, while cow dung slurry may improve seed coat permeability and early seedling establishment through beneficial microbial activity (Maddipoti et al., 2022; Nair, 2010). Although several studies have evaluated growing media and seed treatments in different horticultural and agricultural crops, information on their combined effects in cashew remains limited. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the individual and combined effects of different growing media and seed pre-sowing treatments on germination, seedling growth, vigour and survival of cashew under nursery conditions to identify the most suitable combination for producing quality planting material.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present investigation was conducted during two nursery seasons, June-September 2025 (Season I) and October-January 2026 (Season II), at the School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies (VISTAS), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (13.02o N, 80.18o E; 15 m above mean sea level). During the study, the mean temperature ranged from 28-35oC with 65-82% relative humidity, providing favourable conditions for cashew seed germination and seedling growth. Mature cashew nuts were collected from healthy, high-yielding mother trees. Damaged and immature nuts were discarded and uniform bold seeds were selected. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with five growing media and four seed pre-sowing treatments, comprising 20 treatment combinations with three replications of 25 seeds each. The growing media were M1 (red soil), M2 (sand + red soil, 2:1), M3 (sand + red soil + cocopeat, 2:1:1), M4 (sand + red soil + vermicompost, 1:1:1) and M5  (sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost, 1:1:1:1). Physicochemical properties (pH, EC, organic carbon and available N, P and K) of the media were analysed before sowing (Table 1). Seed pre-sowing treatments comprised T1 (control), T2 (water soaking for 12 h), T3 (water soaking for 24 h) and T4 (cow dung slurry for 12 h; 1:1, w/v). Treated seeds were shade-dried and sown vertically at a depth of 2-3 cm in 30 × 20 cm polyethylene bags containing the respective media. Uniform irrigation and nursery management practices were followed throughout the experiment. Observations were recorded on days to initiation of germination, days to 50% germination, germination percentage, shoot length, root length, number of leaves, seedling dry weight, vigour indices and survival percentage using standard procedures. Vigour Index I was calculated as germination percentage × total seedling length, whereas Vigour index II was calculated as germination percentage × seedling dry weight. Data from both seasons were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for FCRD (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at P≤0.05.

Table 1: Physicochemical properties and nutrient composition of the experimental growing media.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Days to initiation of germination
 
Days to initiation of germination was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the earliest initiation of germination (10.15 days), followed by M4 (11.48 days), M3 (11.95 days), M2 (12.65 days) and M1 (13.52 days). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the minimum days to germination (10.90 days), followed by T4 (11.56 days), T2 (12.03 days) and T1 (13.30 days). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3  recording the earliest germination (9.06 days), whereas M1T1 required the maximum time (14.82 days). Earlier germination under M5T3 may be attributed to rapid seed imbibition, activation of hydrolytic enzymes and efficient reserve mobilization, while the porous growing medium improved moisture retention and oxygen diffusion, promoting respiratory metabolism and radicle emergence. These findings agree with Devi et al., (2021) and Hartmann et al., (2011), who reported that favourable substrate conditions and seed hydration accelerate germination. Thus, combining an appropriate nursery medium with seed pre-soaking effectively hastened germination in cashew.

Table 2: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on germination parameters.


 
Days to 50% germination
 
The number of days required to attain 50% germination was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the shortest duration (14.58 days), while T3 required only 15.47 days among the seed pre-treatments. The interaction M5 T3  recorded the shortest duration (13.54 days), whereas M2T1 required the longest time (19.64 days). Faster attainment of 50% germination under M5T3 indicates improved germination uniformity due to enhanced moisture availability, oxygen diffusion and synchronized metabolic activity, resulting in rapid radicle emergence. Similar findings were reported by Hamid and Bugaev (2020) and Atiyeh et al., (2002). Uniform germination facilitates efficient nursery management and timely transplanting.
 
Germination percentage
 
Germination percentage was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled germination percentage (92.18%), followed by M4 (84.90%), M3 (80.68%), M2 (78.67%) and M1 (71.40%). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3  recorded the highest pooled germination percentage (86.93%), followed by T4  (84.06%), T2 (81.40%) and T1 (73.86%). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest germination (96.84%), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (64.82%). The higher germination under M5T3  resulted from improved moisture availability, aeration and nutrient supply, which enhanced seed imbibition, enzyme activation and reserve mobilization for rapid and uniform germination. These findings support Bradford (1986) and agree with Martí-Guillén et al. (2026) and Umamaheswari et al. (2021). The superior germination obtained with M5T3 demonstrates its suitability for producing vigorous and uniform cashew nursery seedlings.
 
Shoot length
 
Shoot length was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5  recorded the highest pooled shoot length (21.44 cm), followed by M4 (20.66 cm), M3 (18.43 cm), M2 (16.50 cm) and M1 (14.21 cm). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the maximum pooled shoot length (19.47 cm), followed by T4  (18.85 cm), T2 (18.18 cm) and T1 (15.60 cm). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the maximum shoot length (22.36 cm), whereas M1T1 recorded the minimum (12.48 cm). Superior shoot growth under M5T3 may be attributed to early germination, enhanced root establishment and improved nutrient and water uptake. The balanced growing medium, coupled with seed pre-soaking, promoted chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthetic activity and assimilate translocation, resulting in greater shoot elongation. Similar findings were reported by Hussain and Abbasi (2018).
 
Root length
 
Root length was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 3). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled root length (13.53 cm), followed by M4 (13.12 cm), M3 (11.73 cm), M2 (10.37 cm) and M1 (8.90 cm). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the maximum pooled root length (12.49 cm), followed by T4 (12.07 cm), T2 (11.51 cm) and T1  (10.04 cm). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest root length (14.36 cm), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (7.86 cm). Enhanced root growth under M5T3 resulted from improved aeration, moisture availability and reduced mechanical resistance, while seed pre-soaking promoted rapid reserve mobilization and root elongation. A vigorous root system enhanced water and nutrient uptake, supporting better seedling establishment. Similar observations were reported by Kumaresan et al. (2024a).

Table 3: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on seedling growth parameters.


 
Number of leaves
 
The number of leaves was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 3). Among the growing media, M5  recorded the highest pooled number of leaves (10.55), followed by M4  (9.55), M3 (8.45), M2  (7.80) and M1 (7.05). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 produced the highest pooled number of leaves (9.48), followed by T4  (9.12), T2 (8.64) and T1 (7.48). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest number of leaves (11.60), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (6.20). Increased leaf production under M5T3 reflected improved nutrient uptake and photosynthetic efficiency, promoting chlorophyll synthesis, leaf expansion and biomass accumulation. These findings agree with Hussain and Abbasi (2018) and Kumaresan et al. (2024a).
 
Seedling vigour indices
 
Vigour index I and II were significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 4). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled vigour index I (1930.50) and vigour index II (77.50), while T3 recorded the highest values among seed pre-treatments (1661.40 and 65.20, respectively). The interaction M5T3  recorded the highest vigour index I (2166) and vigour index II (89), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest values (808 and 30). Higher vigour under M5T3 resulted from improved germination, balanced root-shoot growth, efficient reserve mobilization and greater dry matter accumulation. Similar findings were reported by Atiyeh et al., (2002) and Mohammed et al., (2026).

Table 4: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on vigour index I, vigour index II and survival percentage.


 
Survival percentage
 
Survival percentage was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 4). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled survival percentage (93.25%), followed by M4  (88.00%), M3 (82.00%), M2 (78.50%) and M1 (72.50%). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the highest pooled survival percentage (86.40%), followed by T4  (84.60%), T2 (82.80%) and T1 (77.60%). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest survival (96%), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (68%). Higher survival under M5T3 was associated with vigorous root development, improved water and nutrient uptake, greater photosynthetic capacity and enhanced tolerance to transplanting stress. Similar findings were reported by Kumaresan et al., (2024b) and Mog et al., (2017), indicating the suitability of M5T3 for producing quality cashew planting material under nursery conditions.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicated that growing media and seed pre-sowing treatments significantly influenced germination, seedling growth and vigour of cashew. The combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) along with water soaking of seeds for 24 hours (M5T3) recorded the best performance in terms of early germination, higher germination percentage, seedling growth and survival. This treatment proved superior over other combinations due to improved physical properties of the media and enhanced seed hydration. Hence, the combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) with 24 h water soaking can be recommended for raising vigorous cashew rootstocks under nursery conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, under the funded project on “Livelihood Improvement of SC Cashew Farmers of Cheyyur Taluk, Chengalpattu District through Value-added Products and Byproducts Formulation.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Influence of Growing Media and Seed Pre-treatments on Germination and Seedling Growth of Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)

    K
    Kumaresan Marappan1,*
    https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9784-8930
    P
    P. Shanmugasundaram2
    R
    R. Sridhar3
    G
    G. Madhumita4
    S
    S. Kamalakkannan5
    1Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
    2School of Pharmaceutical Sieneses, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
    3School of Mechanical Engineering, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
    4School of Management Studies, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
    5Department of Computer Applications, School of Computing Sciences, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Pallavaram-600 117, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Seed germination and seedling vigour in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) are influenced by growing media composition and seed pre-sowing treatments. Optimizing these factors is essential for producing vigorous and uniform rootstock seedlings for successful orchard establishment.

    Methods: A nursery experiment was conducted during 2025-2026 at the School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies, Chennai. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design with five growing media and four seed pre-sowing treatments, replicated thrice. Growing media comprised combinations of red soil, sand, cocopeat and vermicompost, while seed treatments included control, water soaking for 12 and 24 h and cow dung slurry for 12 h. Observations on germination, seedling growth, vigour indices and survival percentage were recorded. Data were analysed using ANOVA and treatment means were compared using LSD at P≤0.05.

    Result: Growing media, seed pre-sowing treatments and their interaction significantly influenced all parameters. The combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) with water soaking for 24 h (M5T3) recorded the earliest germination (9.06 days), minimum days to 50% germination (13.54 days), highest germination (96.84%), shoot length (22.36 cm), root length (14.36 cm), number of leaves (11.60), vigour index I (2166), vigour index II (89) and survival percentage (96%), demonstrating its suitability for raising vigorous cashew rootstock seedlings under nursery conditions.

    INTRODUCTION

    Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an economically important tropical plantation crop of the family Anacardiaceae, cultivated for its edible kernels and valuable industrial by-products (Salehi et al., 2019). Cashew kernels are rich in proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and essential minerals, whereas the cashew apple and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) possess significant food, pharmaceutical and industrial applications due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial and polymer-forming properties (Rico et al., 2016; Kyei et al., 2023; Kumaresan et al., 2026). Increasing global demand has expanded cashew cultivation in major producing countries, including India, Vietnam, Brazil, Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire (Oliveira et al., 2020).
           
    In India, orchard productivity largely depends on the availability of vigorous and genetically superior planting material (Sarath et al., 2025). Production of quality nursery seedlings is essential for successful grafting, rapid field establishment and improved orchard performance. Vigorous rootstocks exhibit greater nutrient uptake, improved root development and higher transplant survival, whereas poor-quality seedlings often result in weak establishment and reduced productivity (Rasool et al., 2020). Seed germination is a complex physiological process involving water imbibition, membrane repair, activation of respiratory metabolism, hydrolytic enzymes and reserve mobilization leading to radicle emergence (El-Maarouf-Bouteau, 2022). These processes are strongly influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the growing medium, particularly moisture availability, aeration, porosity and nutrient status (Será and Hnilička, 2023). Cocopeat improves water-holding capacity and aeration, vermicompost supplies readily available nutrients, beneficial microorganisms and growth-promoting substances, while sand enhances drainage and root-zone aeration, together creating favourable conditions for seed germination and seedling growth (Al-Ajlouni et al., 2024). Likewise, seed pre-sowing treatments such as hydropriming enhance seed hydration, membrane repair and reserve mobilization, thereby accelerating germination, while cow dung slurry may improve seed coat permeability and early seedling establishment through beneficial microbial activity (Maddipoti et al., 2022; Nair, 2010). Although several studies have evaluated growing media and seed treatments in different horticultural and agricultural crops, information on their combined effects in cashew remains limited. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the individual and combined effects of different growing media and seed pre-sowing treatments on germination, seedling growth, vigour and survival of cashew under nursery conditions to identify the most suitable combination for producing quality planting material.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The present investigation was conducted during two nursery seasons, June-September 2025 (Season I) and October-January 2026 (Season II), at the School of Agriculture, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies (VISTAS), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (13.02o N, 80.18o E; 15 m above mean sea level). During the study, the mean temperature ranged from 28-35oC with 65-82% relative humidity, providing favourable conditions for cashew seed germination and seedling growth. Mature cashew nuts were collected from healthy, high-yielding mother trees. Damaged and immature nuts were discarded and uniform bold seeds were selected. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with five growing media and four seed pre-sowing treatments, comprising 20 treatment combinations with three replications of 25 seeds each. The growing media were M1 (red soil), M2 (sand + red soil, 2:1), M3 (sand + red soil + cocopeat, 2:1:1), M4 (sand + red soil + vermicompost, 1:1:1) and M5  (sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost, 1:1:1:1). Physicochemical properties (pH, EC, organic carbon and available N, P and K) of the media were analysed before sowing (Table 1). Seed pre-sowing treatments comprised T1 (control), T2 (water soaking for 12 h), T3 (water soaking for 24 h) and T4 (cow dung slurry for 12 h; 1:1, w/v). Treated seeds were shade-dried and sown vertically at a depth of 2-3 cm in 30 × 20 cm polyethylene bags containing the respective media. Uniform irrigation and nursery management practices were followed throughout the experiment. Observations were recorded on days to initiation of germination, days to 50% germination, germination percentage, shoot length, root length, number of leaves, seedling dry weight, vigour indices and survival percentage using standard procedures. Vigour Index I was calculated as germination percentage × total seedling length, whereas Vigour index II was calculated as germination percentage × seedling dry weight. Data from both seasons were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for FCRD (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at P≤0.05.

    Table 1: Physicochemical properties and nutrient composition of the experimental growing media.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Days to initiation of germination
     
    Days to initiation of germination was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the earliest initiation of germination (10.15 days), followed by M4 (11.48 days), M3 (11.95 days), M2 (12.65 days) and M1 (13.52 days). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the minimum days to germination (10.90 days), followed by T4 (11.56 days), T2 (12.03 days) and T1 (13.30 days). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3  recording the earliest germination (9.06 days), whereas M1T1 required the maximum time (14.82 days). Earlier germination under M5T3 may be attributed to rapid seed imbibition, activation of hydrolytic enzymes and efficient reserve mobilization, while the porous growing medium improved moisture retention and oxygen diffusion, promoting respiratory metabolism and radicle emergence. These findings agree with Devi et al., (2021) and Hartmann et al., (2011), who reported that favourable substrate conditions and seed hydration accelerate germination. Thus, combining an appropriate nursery medium with seed pre-soaking effectively hastened germination in cashew.

    Table 2: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on germination parameters.


     
    Days to 50% germination
     
    The number of days required to attain 50% germination was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the shortest duration (14.58 days), while T3 required only 15.47 days among the seed pre-treatments. The interaction M5 T3  recorded the shortest duration (13.54 days), whereas M2T1 required the longest time (19.64 days). Faster attainment of 50% germination under M5T3 indicates improved germination uniformity due to enhanced moisture availability, oxygen diffusion and synchronized metabolic activity, resulting in rapid radicle emergence. Similar findings were reported by Hamid and Bugaev (2020) and Atiyeh et al., (2002). Uniform germination facilitates efficient nursery management and timely transplanting.
     
    Germination percentage
     
    Germination percentage was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled germination percentage (92.18%), followed by M4 (84.90%), M3 (80.68%), M2 (78.67%) and M1 (71.40%). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3  recorded the highest pooled germination percentage (86.93%), followed by T4  (84.06%), T2 (81.40%) and T1 (73.86%). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest germination (96.84%), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (64.82%). The higher germination under M5T3  resulted from improved moisture availability, aeration and nutrient supply, which enhanced seed imbibition, enzyme activation and reserve mobilization for rapid and uniform germination. These findings support Bradford (1986) and agree with Martí-Guillén et al. (2026) and Umamaheswari et al. (2021). The superior germination obtained with M5T3 demonstrates its suitability for producing vigorous and uniform cashew nursery seedlings.
     
    Shoot length
     
    Shoot length was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 2). Among the growing media, M5  recorded the highest pooled shoot length (21.44 cm), followed by M4 (20.66 cm), M3 (18.43 cm), M2 (16.50 cm) and M1 (14.21 cm). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the maximum pooled shoot length (19.47 cm), followed by T4  (18.85 cm), T2 (18.18 cm) and T1 (15.60 cm). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the maximum shoot length (22.36 cm), whereas M1T1 recorded the minimum (12.48 cm). Superior shoot growth under M5T3 may be attributed to early germination, enhanced root establishment and improved nutrient and water uptake. The balanced growing medium, coupled with seed pre-soaking, promoted chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthetic activity and assimilate translocation, resulting in greater shoot elongation. Similar findings were reported by Hussain and Abbasi (2018).
     
    Root length
     
    Root length was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 3). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled root length (13.53 cm), followed by M4 (13.12 cm), M3 (11.73 cm), M2 (10.37 cm) and M1 (8.90 cm). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the maximum pooled root length (12.49 cm), followed by T4 (12.07 cm), T2 (11.51 cm) and T1  (10.04 cm). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest root length (14.36 cm), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (7.86 cm). Enhanced root growth under M5T3 resulted from improved aeration, moisture availability and reduced mechanical resistance, while seed pre-soaking promoted rapid reserve mobilization and root elongation. A vigorous root system enhanced water and nutrient uptake, supporting better seedling establishment. Similar observations were reported by Kumaresan et al. (2024a).

    Table 3: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on seedling growth parameters.


     
    Number of leaves
     
    The number of leaves was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 3). Among the growing media, M5  recorded the highest pooled number of leaves (10.55), followed by M4  (9.55), M3 (8.45), M2  (7.80) and M1 (7.05). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 produced the highest pooled number of leaves (9.48), followed by T4  (9.12), T2 (8.64) and T1 (7.48). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest number of leaves (11.60), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (6.20). Increased leaf production under M5T3 reflected improved nutrient uptake and photosynthetic efficiency, promoting chlorophyll synthesis, leaf expansion and biomass accumulation. These findings agree with Hussain and Abbasi (2018) and Kumaresan et al. (2024a).
     
    Seedling vigour indices
     
    Vigour index I and II were significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 4). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled vigour index I (1930.50) and vigour index II (77.50), while T3 recorded the highest values among seed pre-treatments (1661.40 and 65.20, respectively). The interaction M5T3  recorded the highest vigour index I (2166) and vigour index II (89), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest values (808 and 30). Higher vigour under M5T3 resulted from improved germination, balanced root-shoot growth, efficient reserve mobilization and greater dry matter accumulation. Similar findings were reported by Atiyeh et al., (2002) and Mohammed et al., (2026).

    Table 4: Effect of growing media and seed treatments across two seasons on vigour index I, vigour index II and survival percentage.


     
    Survival percentage
     
    Survival percentage was significantly influenced by growing media, seed pre-treatments and their interaction (Table 4). Among the growing media, M5 recorded the highest pooled survival percentage (93.25%), followed by M4  (88.00%), M3 (82.00%), M2 (78.50%) and M1 (72.50%). Among the seed pre-treatments, T3 recorded the highest pooled survival percentage (86.40%), followed by T4  (84.60%), T2 (82.80%) and T1 (77.60%). The interaction effect was significant (P≤0.05), with M5T3 recording the highest survival (96%), whereas M1T1 recorded the lowest (68%). Higher survival under M5T3 was associated with vigorous root development, improved water and nutrient uptake, greater photosynthetic capacity and enhanced tolerance to transplanting stress. Similar findings were reported by Kumaresan et al., (2024b) and Mog et al., (2017), indicating the suitability of M5T3 for producing quality cashew planting material under nursery conditions.

    CONCLUSION

    The results of the present study indicated that growing media and seed pre-sowing treatments significantly influenced germination, seedling growth and vigour of cashew. The combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) along with water soaking of seeds for 24 hours (M5T3) recorded the best performance in terms of early germination, higher germination percentage, seedling growth and survival. This treatment proved superior over other combinations due to improved physical properties of the media and enhanced seed hydration. Hence, the combination of sand + red soil + cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) with 24 h water soaking can be recommended for raising vigorous cashew rootstocks under nursery conditions.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, under the funded project on “Livelihood Improvement of SC Cashew Farmers of Cheyyur Taluk, Chengalpattu District through Value-added Products and Byproducts Formulation.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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