Background: The efficiency of reproduction in buffaloes can be increased by being able to spot buffaloes in estrus, as silent heat is a severe problem in this species. Proteins of urinary exosomes are identified to be better physiological biomarkers when compared to cell free proteins as these extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny in size, have additional protection from degradation by endogenous protease activity and are involved in intercellular communication. Hence, the present study was aimed to quantify the urinary exosome sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) levels during estrus and diestrus stages of buffaloes to determine its suitability as a marker for identifying buffaloes in estrus. 
 
Methods: The grouping of animals as mid-diestrus (Group-I/G-I/Control group), regular estrus (Group-II/G-II) and silent estrus (Group-III/G-III) buffaloes was done using a combinatorial approach. The levels of SHBG in urinary exosomes of three groups of animals was quantified using the bovine SHBG ELISA kit. 
 
Result: The present study&rsquo;s findings showed significantly higher urinary exosome SHBG concentration (p&lt;0.05) in G-I in comparison to G-II and G-III. The present study revealing for decreased concentration of urinary exosome SHBG in G-II and G-III animals when compared to G-I animals probably construes the physiological role of SHBG in the female reproductive tract at the estrus stage by mediating the action of estradiol 17 &acirc; (E&alpha;) at the target site. However, for urinary exosome SHBG to be considered as a biomarker, there is need for additional research on a bigger population.

Quantification of Urinary Exosome Sex Hormone Binding Globulin Levels during Estrus and Diestrus Stages of Buffaloes

Background: The clinical manifestations of lower urinary tract diseases (LUTD) are common but non-specific to any particular disease among geriatric dogs. Diagnosis and confirmation of the specific lower urinary tract disease is a biggest challenge for a successful treatment plan.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Geriatric dogs that were presented with signs suggestive of lower urinary tract diseases were subjected for detailed clinical examination followed by complete urinalysis, culture and microscopic examination of the urine sample that was collected by ultrasound guided cystocentesis. Abdomen radiography and ultrasonography was also performed to confirm the specific LUT disease. Fine needle aspiration of prostate was also carried out in few selected cases.&nbsp; 
 
Result: A total of 52 geriatric dogs were diagnosed for various lower urinary tract diseases such as cystitis, cystic calculi, prostate infection, transitional cell carcinoma and both calculi with cystitis. Stranguria, dysuria, malodorous urine, blood-tinged urine, oliguria, urinary incontinence and anuria were few common signs recorded. Apart from RBCs, WBCs and other cellular debris, various types of crystals were also detected on microscopic evaluation of the urine sample. Struvite or triple phosphate crystals (coffin-lid shape) were of predominant, followed by calcium oxalate dihydrate (octahedron or envelope shape), calcium oxalate monohydrate (picket fence shape) and ammonium urate or biurate (irregular shape). Most commonly calculi were retrieved from bladder and in few male dogs from urethra. In addition to cystic calculi, transitional cell carcinoma was also recorded among few cases that were reported with hematuria. Enlarged prostate and abscess were common abnormalities of prostate among geriatric dogs.

Lower Urinary Tract Diseases (LUTD) in Geriatric Dogs

<div style="text-align: justify;">The objective of this study was to develop baseline topographical data of landmarks for locating kidneys and urinary bladder and to generate sonographic calliper measurements along with dynamic parameters of these organs. Ultrasonography was performed on 50 native adult (Spiti horses and Himalayan hill mules) healthy unsedated equines of either sex. The thickness, character and echo-architecture of these organs were recorded. The right kidney was found from 15th (&plusmn;1) intercostal space (ICS) extending upto first lumbar vertebra, both in horses as well as in mules. The height of right kidney varied from 112.7 to 118.3 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 115.6&plusmn;1.01 mm) and its thickness varied from 58.4 to 71.2 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 64.3&plusmn;2.37 mm). While in mules height of right kidney varied from 90.7 to 109.2 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= of 101.1&plusmn;3.14 mm) and its thickness varied from 47.3 to 56.8 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 52.3&plusmn;1.57 mm). The left kidney in horses was found between 16th ICS to 2nd lumbar vertebra, while in mules it was found from 16th ICS to 3rd lumbar vertebra. The height of left kidney varied from 87 to 107.8 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 99.0&plusmn;3.67 mm) and its thickness varied from 49.5 to 53.8 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 51.8&plusmn;0.72 mm). In mules the height of left kidney varied from 85.5 to 111.4 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 95.3&plusmn;2.36 mm) and its thickness varied from 43.4 to 55.7 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 50.6&plusmn;2.53 mm). During transrectal ultrasonography urinary bladder was observed as an oval to round structure in the caudal ventral abdomen, the wall thickness of urinary bladder varied from 2.7 to 2.8 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 2.74&plusmn;0.02 mm), 2.4 to 2.7 mm (Mean&plusmn; SE= 2.62&plusmn;0.05 mm) in horses and mules respectively. Hence detailed ultrasonographic examination of these organs helped us to compile baseline data, which will be helpful in future in management of the affections of these organs.</div>

Ultrasonographic examination of kidneys and urinary bladder of normal adult Spiti horses and Himalayan Hill mules of India

<div>Background: Milk is the primary nutrition source for mammalian infants. Production of milk varies among species, breeds within the same species or even individuals of the same breed. Despite large variations in milk production (e.g. yield, composition), the health of recipient infants remains unperturbed regardless of species, breeds or individuals, suggesting a compensatory mechanism for low milk production to offset the potential nutrition difference compared with high milk production.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Here, we profiled and compared the milk exosomal microRNAs between groups with low and high milk production in two buffalo breeds.&nbsp; 
 
Result: We found that individuals with low milk production mainly down-regulated microRNAs targeting the genes in protein digestion and absorption pathway. Given that milk exosomal microRNAs could be taken up by the epithelial cells of infants, down-regulation of which inhibits expression of genes encoding proteins responsible for protein digestion, peptides and amino acid transportation in infants&rsquo; digestive system. Such down-regulation of genes facilitates the protein digestion, peptide absorption and amino acid absorption (e.g. stomach, intestine, colon) for infants. Our results thus provide a novel insight that exosomal microRNAs may play an important role in balancing the nutrient absorption of infants between mothers with low milk production and ones with high milk production.</div>

The Role of Milk Exosomal microRNAs in Balancing the Nutrition between Buffalo Breeds with Low and High Milk Production

Background: Ultrasonography is a second most commonly used diagnostic imaging technique in veterinary practice after radiography. The ultrasonographic examination of clinically healthy animals provides relevant information about anatomical location, echo texture, size and shape of organs. In the present study, the echo-structural pattern of urinary system of adult female goats were evaluated to find the normal structural pattern of various constituents of urinary system.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: B-mode ultrasonographic study of urinary system was performed in 20 healthy adult female Jamunapari goats. Mean&plusmn;S.E. values of body weight and age of selected animals were 27.49&plusmn;0.79 kg and 2.77&plusmn;0.10 years, respectively. All twenty animals were subjected to sonographic examination after clipping the hairs from desired sites to scan the various organs of urinary system in standing position under physical restraint without using any anesthetic agent. The values of various clinico-physiological parameters including rectal temperature, heart rate, respiration rate, colour of mucous membranes were recorded to examine the health status prior to sonography. The left and right kidneys were scanned from right dorsal flank by paravertebral approach using a transcutaneous micro-convex probe at 5 MHz and a convex probe at 2.8-6 MHz frequency. A dual frequency (5-9 MHz) micro-curved array cavity probe was used to scan bladder and urethra per rectally. The renal parenchyma in healthy goats was distinctly divided into hypoechoic outer cortex and anechoic inner medulla. The hyperechoic renal sinus complex was present in center of the kidney and renal pelvis was anechoic. The renal capsule was seen as hyperechoic fine line surrounding the renal parenchyma. Pulsed wave renal color doppler ultrasound was performed in 3 healthy goats with the aim to generate reference images of renal vasculature.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The Mean&plusmn;SE values of renal length, renal height, horizontal diameter of renal sinus, vertical diameter of renal sinus and diameter of renal pelvis for right kidney were 6.11&plusmn;0.09, 3.26&plusmn;0.08, 3.01&plusmn;0.11, 1.32&plusmn;0.03, 1.05&plusmn;0.03, respectively while for left kidney these values were 6.02&plusmn;0.09 and 3.35&plusmn;0.07, 2.67&plusmn;0.12, 1.14&plusmn;0.06, 1.10&plusmn;0.07 cm. The ureters could not be visualized in any of the goats. The distended bladder was seen as anechoic circular structure surrounded by a smooth echogenic wall with a mean thickness of 1.65&plusmn;0.06 mm. No significant difference was observed in the measurements of both kidneys except in dimensions of renal sinus. Positive correlation was found between renal size and body weight of goats. It was concluded that ultrasound is an easy, rapid and non-invasive method to evaluate echotexture and morphometry of structures of urinary system.

Studies on Echostructural Pattern of Urinary System in Adult Female Goats

<div>Background: The data pertaining to the lower urinary tract disorders in dogs in India is very merge. This retrospective analysis presents a retrospective analysis of incidence of affections of lower urinary tract in dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The cases of different affections of lower urinary tract presented at the Veterinary Clinical Complex, Veterinary College, Anand Agricultural University, Anand during April-2012 to March-2017 were screened and detailed information regarding age, sex and breed were collected and analysed to calculate percentage of incidence of different affections of lower urinary tract viz., surgical affections and non-surgical affection. 
 
Conclusion: Total 24319 cases of lower urinary tract affections in dogs were registered. Among them 5854 (24.07 %) surgical cases comprising urolithiasis (81, 76.42 %), bladder neoplasia (25, 23.58 %) and 18465 (75.93 %) non-surgical affections with cystitis (176, 0.95 %) cases. The highest incidence of urolithiasis was 25.93 per cent in the year 2014-15 and in 7 to 9 years aged dogs (35.80 %). The sex wise per cent incidence was higher in male (72.84) than female (27.16). The urinary bladder calculi was the highest (72.84 %) followed by the urethra (16.05 %) and both the locations (11.11 %). The year wise highest per cent incidence of cystitis was recorded for the year 2015-16 (52.27). The age wise per cent incidence of cystitis was equally higher 28.98 in the age groups of 7 to 9 and 10 to 12 years, each. The year wise the highest per cent incidence of neoplasia of urinary bladder (TCC) in dogs was 52.00 for the year 2015-2016. The age wise percent incidence of neoplasia of urinary bladder was the highest in 7 to 9 years age groups (36.00). The sex wise per cent incidence for neoplasia in urinary bladder was higher in male (64.00) than female (36.00). The breed wise highest per cent incidence of urolithiasis was in Pomeranian (25.93), cystitis in Pug (28.41) and neoplasia of bladder (TCC) Labrador and Pug (20.00, each).</div>

Retrospective Analysis of Lower Urinary Tract Disorders in Dogs: Study of Five Years

<div>Background: The available literature and work done so far on diagnosis and therapeutic management of lower urinary tract affections in canine practice is very meagre specially on urethro-cystoscopic examinations, medicinal dissolution of calculi and immunotherapy for neoplasia of UB in dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present study was carried in 55 dogs with lower urinary tract affections classify according to pathological conditions and therapeutic management. The diagnostic modalities like radiography, ultrasonography in all dogs, urethro-cystoscopy in seven dogs and their findings were studied. The response of therapeutics were also studied. 
 
Conclusion: The dogs having small size calculi treated according to urine pH with oral medicinal dissolution using Ammonium Chloride (Group 1A, n=9) and Di Sodium Hydrogen Citrate (Group 1B, n=10) for sixty days, Group 1C (n=25) dogs with cystitis (n=17) subjected for bacterial culture treated according to sensitive antibiotics, TCC of bladder (n=7) with immunotherapy using BCG vaccine and a dog with leiomyosarcoma with cystotomy. The dogs (Group 2, n=11) with large size calculi (n=10), a lodge catheter in UB and dogs (Group 3, n=6) did not responded medicinal dissolution from group 1A (n=2) and 1B (n=4) treated surgically. One to multiple, variable size recovered calculi (n=24) revealed highest brown colour grossly, calcium oxalate type, higher in Pomeranian breed and dogs fed with combination of vegetarian and commercial feed.</div>

<div>Clinico-diagnosis and Surgico-therapeutic Management of Lower Urinary Tract Disorders in Dogs</div>

In this study, the isolation, identification and antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial agents taken from urine and sediment samples of 10 cats and 10 dogs, which were diagnosed with urinary tract infection was aimed. Each urine and sediment samples were streaked onto blood agar which contains 5 % sheep blood, Eosin Methylene Blue agar and MacConkey agar for bacterial examination. In conclusion, Staphylococcus aureus from 4 dogs, Staphylococcus epidermidis from 2 dogs, Serratia liquefaciens from 1 dog, Plesiomonas shigelloides from 1 dog, Yersinia enterocolitica from 1 cat, were isolated and identified. In conclusion of antibiogram test, 78 % of the isolates were susceptible to Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid, 67 % of the isolates were susceptible to Ceftriaxone and Cefoperazone, 55.5 % of the isolates were susceptible to Enrofloxacin, 22.5 % of the isolates were susceptible to Lincomycin and 22 % of the isolates were susceptible to Erythromycin. The isolates were resistant to Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprime and Oxacillin in the ratio of 78 % and 67 % respectively. Consequently, it is concluded that the isolates obtained from dogs highlight the resistancy to antibiotics, bacterial agents play a less role in feline urinary tract infections and the appropriate antibiotic application procedure will enhance the success of therapy.

Identification of bacterial pathogens that cause urinary tract&nbsp;infections and detection of their antibiotic susceptibility

Background: Bacterial urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common diseases in cats caused by an imbalance between the natural host defence mechanisms of the urinary tract and virulent bacteria. This study investigated the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of enterococci isolated from cats presenting urinary tract problems to veterinary clinics in Istanbul. 
 
Methods: 100 urine samples were collected from cats by cystocentesis and plated on blood agar. Isolates found catalase and oxidase negative plated on Enterococcocel agar. After incubation, the isolates formed black colonies were tested by PCR using E. faecium and E. faecalis-specific primers. Then the antibiotic susceptibility of the isolates was determined. 
 
Result: Eight of the 100 isolates that formed black colonies on Enterococcosel agar were identified as Enterococcus spp. After PCR tests, six isolates were classified as E. faecalis, one isolate was classified as E. faecium and one isolate that did not form a band was classified as Enterococcus spp. As a result of the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method used to determine the antibiotic susceptibility of the isolates, most resistance was found to cephalothin (100%) and penicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin and tetracycline (87.5%). While vancomycin resistance was not observed in any isolate, the lowest resistance was to enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin (33.3%). Multiple antibiotic resistance was observed in all (100%) isolates. The presence of multi-resistant enterococci in cats represents a significant health threat. Bacterial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing should always be performed in urinary tract infections to guide definitive diagnosis and treatment.

Presence of Enterococci in Cats with Urinary Tract Infections and Antibiotic Resistance Profiles

<div style="text-align: justify;">Thyroid disorders are among the most common endocrine disorders in India. Hypothyroidism is a very common condition. The condition is more common in women than in men, and its incidence increases with age. For the present study 150 females of 21 to 50 years of age were selected via random sampling from Pantnagar area of Udham Singh Nagar District, Uttarakhand and were interviewed using a predesigned proforma. The subjects mainly belonged to middle and upper income groups. Among 150 subjects, 30 were found to be suffering from hypothyroidism of which six were the newly diagnosed cases who had not started medications. Subjects were assessed for their dietary intakes and differences in the food habits based on food avoidance, food preferences, dietary habits and dietary diversity scores. Based on the analysis of the dietary intakes of normal (n=120) and hypothyroid (n=30) subjects not much difference was found, as was also evident from the dietary diversity scores (where non-significant difference was observed) except for in case of some dietary habits which showed significant differences. The mean dietary diversity scores of hypothyroid and normal subjects were 5.8&plusmn;0.88 and 6.0&plusmn;0.90 respectively. Urine samples were also collected for the measurement of urinary iodine concentration of only 30 subjects which included six of the newly detected hypothyroid cases not on medication and the remaining 24 normal subjects. Only 2 hypothyroid subjects and 3 normal subjects were found to be suffering from mild iodine deficiency with values of urinary iodine ranging from 76.5 to 94.6&micro;g/l. Median urine iodine excretion in the present study was 172 &micro;g/l (mean 186.5&plusmn;58.4 &micro;g/l) indicating iodine sufficiency.</div>