<div style="text-align: justify;">Twelve Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers along with twelve morphological markers were used to assess the diversity among thirteen screened genotypes both moderate resistant and susceptible against stemphylium blight of indigenous microsperma germplasm (i.e. pilosae) type of Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) at BCKV, West Bengal. Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) of SSR primers ranged from 0.77 (SSR 317-2) to 0.15 (PBA LC 0233). The maximum Jaccard&rsquo;s similarity was recorded between L-4769 and Ranjan (approximately 100%) whereas minimum was between K-75 and VL 126 (0.11). Genotypes K-75 also showed less similarity with DL 14-2 and VL 151 (0.17). Another popular variety WBL 77 showed minimum similarity with moderately resistant genotypes VL 151 and DL 14-2 (0.17). While using morphological characters as the basis of diversity analysis, Euclidean coefficient revealed that high yielding cultivar Subrata was maximum diverse with genotype VL 151(7.12). &nbsp;Asha also showed diversity with VL 151(6.31) whereas VL 151 had dissimilarity coefficient of 6.21 with K-75. Precoz and VL 126 has dissimilarity coefficient of 6.19. On the basis of above findings it could be said that diverse parental pairs VL 151 &amp; K 75 and VL 151 and Subrata / Asha could be used in hybridization programme or biotic stress breeding programme for developing Stemphylium resistant lentil cultivars in future.</div>

Diversity analysis by SSR markers and morphological markers among Stemphylium blight tolerance genotypes with high yielding cultivars of Lentil (Lens Culinaris Medik)

<div>Background: In soybean yellow seed coat is preferred in the market, however, colored ones are currently gaining attention because of their medicinal and nutritive values; besides. Hence it is essential to breed varieties with desired seed coat colour.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Twelve genotypes with six each having yellow and black seed coats were screened with fourteen primers linked to seed coat colour governing loci.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Out of them twelve primers showed polymorphism. Monomorphism was observed with both T loci specific and two of the three R loci specific primers. However I locus specific primers i.e. SM303, SM305 and TR showed polymorphism shared by their seed coat color. SM303 amplified a 180 bp sized band in yellow seed coated genotypes and a 130 bp band in black seed coated genotypes. SM305 amplified dual bands with a 200bp band being monomorphic and an additional band (192-216 bp range) present in only yellow seed coated genotypes, of which a 208 bp band was shared by four yellow seed coated genotypes. Cold induced seed coat discoloration specific TR primer generated bands of different size ranges in yellow seed coated (336-344 bp) and black seed coated genotypes (300-320), of which a 340 bp band was shared by four yellow seed coated genotypes.</div>

<div>Verification of Soybean Seed Coat Colour Specific Markers Reveals I Loci Specific Markers Capable for Distinguishing Genotypes Differing in Seed Coated Colour</div>

Molecular markers are effective tools used to &lsquo;flag&rsquo; the location of a specific gene or the inheritance of a definite trait. Markers are unique DNA fragments that can be identified inside the entire genome. The development of molecular markers combined with high throughput technologies have paved the way for achieving the desirable traits as well as induced biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in plant, which enhanced the crop breeding. Highly polymorphic molecular markers are developed for gene mapping, estimation of genetic diversity, finding out the evolution and phylogeny of crop, analysis of heterosis, assessment of diploid/haploid crops and genotyping of cultivars along with Marker Assisted Breeding (MAB)/Marker Assisted Selection (MAS). These are the most significant objectives for crop breeding. This review reveals about the role of various recently developed molecular markers in the improvement of crop. Molecular markers act as a &ldquo;milestone&rdquo; for the researchers who aim to enhance crop breeding.

Role of Molecular Markers in Crop Breeding: A Review

Genetic diversity of four quail populations, including Korean quails (maroon quails), Peking white quails, Chinese yellow quails and Chinese black quails, were analyzed by microsatellite markers, aiming to provide scientific basis for new breeds of Chinese black quails for egg production as well as the assessment, protection and utilization of Chinese quail&rsquo;s genetic resources. The results showed that 48 alleles were detected by nine microsatellite markers in the four quail populations, with the mean of 5.33 alleles in each locus. The average effective number of alleles marked by the nine microsatellite markers in Chinese black quails, Peking white quails, Chinese yellow quails and maroon quails were 3.5338, 3.6135, 4.0312 and 3.6508 respectively. The average heterozygosity of the four quail populations were 0.6952, 0.7046, 0.7353 and 0.7096 respectively. The average polymorphic information content of nine microsatellite loci in four quail populations were 0.6204, 0.6587, 0.6942 and 0.6639 , respectively, all of which were greater than 0.5, indicating the four populations&rsquo; copious genetic diversity. In this study, the average genetic differentiation coefficient among populations was 0.0349, so the genetic variation among populations accounted for 3.49%, which demonstrated that genetic variation among populations was just a small proportion of the total population genetic variation, and there was little differentiation among the four populations. Cluster analysis indicated that Chinese black quails and Peking white quails were firstly clustered, and then Chinese yellow quails and maroon quails were clustered, and finally the two were clustered together.&nbsp;

Analysis of genetic diversity of four quails by microsatellite markers

<div>Powdery mildew is caused by an obligate parasite Erysiphe pisi and considered as one of the most important constraints causing yield reductions in pea. Development and utilization of genetic resistance is acknowledged as the most effective, economic and environmental friendly method of control. Therefore, development of cultivars with improved resistance to biotic stresses is a primary goal of plant breeding programs throughout the world. Three monogenic sources er1, er2 and Er3 have been described to govern the powdery mildew disease resistance. Several markers have been reported linked to resistant genes at varying distances in different mapping populations. Genetic markers linked to the disease resistance gene make the breeding process more efficient for the use of Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) strategy to aid in obtaining a complete powdery mildew resistance in pea.</div>

Molecular Markers for Powdery Mildew in Pea (Pisum sativum L.): A Review

<div>Background: Adulteration of meat with their cheaper or inferior counterparts has become a common practice in the meat industry which threatens the feelings as well as the health of the people. Meat adulteration has issues relating to social, religious, economic, and public health. Therefore, it is important to develop simple and reliable techniques for the authentication of species of meat. Mitochondrial markers have been widely used in species identification and authentication as PCR of species-specific markers of mitochondrial origin is relatively rapid, accurate, sensitive and cost-effective as compared to other PCR based assays. The present study was carried out for authentication of raw and cooked meat from different species using PCR amplification of species-specific Cytb and D-loop markers of mitochondrial origin. 
 
Methods: In this study, detection of different raw meat viz. beef, carabeef, mutton, chevon, chicken, duck meat and dog meat as well as meat samples subjected to different processing temperatures was done using PCR of species-specific mitochondrial Cytb and D-loop markers. Samples of beef, carabeef, mutton, chevon, chicken, duck meat and dog meat were collected randomly from different locations of the North-Eastern region of India. The meat samples were subjected to heat treatment in hot water (80oC) to have 75oC core temperature. They were also 
cooked in steam to have the core temperature of 95oC. The samples were also subjected to autoclaving at a temperature of 121oC and 15 lb pressure.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The markers used in this study successfully amplified unique fragments for beef, carabeef, mutton, chevon, chicken, duck meat and dog meat. The sizes of the amplified products were 126 bp for beef, 226 bp for carabeef, 254 bp for mutton, 453 bp for chevon, 256 bp for chicken, 292 bp for duck meat and 100 bp for dog meat. The results were consistent in the meat samples which were subjected to different cooking temperatures ranging from 75-121oC. Consequently, these markers were validated for cross-amplification by checking them with other meat samples and no amplifications were observed in non-target species. The results suggested that all the markers were highly specific for the target species. The simplicity, sensitivity and stability of the assay indicated that this method could be very useful for meat authentication and thereby to detect adulteration.&nbsp;</div>

<div>A Method for Authentication of Meat by PCR Amplification of Species-specific Markers of Mitochondrial Origin</div>

<div>Background: Mungbean yellow mosaic virus disease is the most devastating disease on Mungbean production. The virus is transmitted by whitefly and can cause yield losses from 75 to 100 per cent. The development of mungbean cultivars resistant to both virus and its vector is considered as one of the most desirable means of managing the disease as it is environmentally safe and highly efficient. The selection of resistant genotypes in conventional methods is complex and time consuming. Hence, the use of molecular markers linked with resistance genes is powerful as it hastens the breeding programmes. The current study was aimed to develop mapping population and to validate molecular markers associated with Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV). 
 
Methods: The present investigation was carried out with 260 F2 individuals that were derived from crossing DGGV-2 and IPM 2-14 during Kharif-2017 at Main Agril Research Station, UAS, Dharwad. Hybrid seeds of this cross were harvested individually and sown during rabi 2017 along with the two parents, as checks for distinguishing the true hybrids. Hybridity of F1s was confirmed through molecular marker analysis and the true F1s were selfed to raise the F2 generation. 
 
Result: Of the 24 previously reported simple sequence repeat markers used for detecting the polymorphism, two markers viz., CEDG305 and CEDG115 were found to be polymorphic between DGGV-2 and IPM-2-14. Two hundred and sixty F2 plants segregated in the ratio of 3 S:1 R (202 susceptible: 58 resistant) as phenotypic and 1: 2 :1 as genotypic ratio implying that single recessive gene controlled resistance. Single marker analysis revealed that the molecular markers CEDG305 and CEDG115 were associated with MYMV resistance with a phenotypic variance of 24.5 and 10.3 per cent respectively. &nbsp;</div>

<div>Development of Mapping Population and Validation of Molecular Markers Associated with MYMV Resistance in Mungbean</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: Chicken represents a valuable genetic resource and protein source, it remains a potential threat to human health as they serve as a reservoir for diseases and food borne pathogens. Diversification of the poultry production is one of the viable options to enhance the food production with less susceptibility to the threats from the emerging diseases and changing climatic conditions. Ducks are promising species suitable for the diversification and will be complimentary with an adaption potential from small to commercial farming. Majority of ducks in the country are desi type with a meagre proportion of improved duck strains.&nbsp; genetic characterization by developing duck specific microsatellite markers and designing suitable improvement program are required to be undertaken at the earliest. The microsatellite markers are extensively used for assessing genetic structure, diversity, and relationships. Information about genetic diversity of indigenous duck breeds is important to design effective improvement and conservation strategies. Therefore, the current studies aim at genetic characterization and evaluation of growth, production and reproduction traits of the crosses of local duck population besides undertaking a suitable duck improvement program. 
 
Methods:&nbsp;Spectrophotometric evaluation of DNA extraction,&nbsp; Electrophoretic evaluation of DNA extraction , microsatellite primers- Presently, a panel of 10 informative duck microsatellite markers were identified from database as reported by <a href="#alyethodi_2010">Alyethodi and Kumar (2010)</a> and <a href="#huang_2006">Huang et al., (2006)</a> and used for the studies, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) , Documentation of PCR products by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis, Metaphor agarose gel electrophoresis(MAGE)of microsatellites alleles, Determination of molecular size of microsatellite alleles and genotypes, Statistical analysis of population genetics data, Data on genotype of all experimental birds at ten microsatellites were compiled and analyzed using POPGENE&reg; 3.1 software (<a href="#yeh_1999">Yeh et al., 1999</a>) for their population genetics parameters. 
 
Results: The study was conducted at College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India.&nbsp; In this study, the genomic DNA was isolated and characterized microsatellite loci in crossbred&nbsp; duck (Pati x White Pekin). Ten&nbsp; microsatellites were used to detect polymorphisms in 50 cross bred ducks. A total of 28 nos of alleles were observed and all loci were polymorphic. The number of alleles ranged from 2 to 5 with an average of 2.6 &plusmn;0.08 per microsatellite locus. The observed and expected heterozygosity of these polymorphic makers ranged from 0.00 to 0.42 &nbsp;with an average number of 0.047 &nbsp;and 0.41 to 0.82 with an average number of 0.57, respectively. &nbsp;The Polymorphic markers consist of observed heterozygosities of loci were less than 0.50. The polymorphism information content (PIC) of 10 loci ranged from 0.32 to 0.78 with an average of 0.477. Microsatellite markers will be useful tool for constructing the genetic linkage map of the duck as well as comparative mapping with the chicken.&nbsp; &nbsp;</div>

Characterization of Microsatellite Markers in Crossbred Ducks

<div>Background: Joha Rice are aromatic rice landraces, having small to medium grain size, indigenous to Assam, India. Due to the introduction of high yielding hybrid varieties, many endemic rice landraces including Joha Rice, are in a verge of extinction, as these can only be conserved and maintained by repetitive cultivation. As there is a conflict of local names for these landraces, many landraces with similar morphological characters have been reported from various parts. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers with longer perfect repeats have earlier proved successful and essential in studying the genetic diversity among rice cultivars. The present study is aimed to evaluate the genetic relationship among fifteen (15) aromatic Joha rice landraces endemic to Upper Brahmaputra Valley, Assam. 
 
Methods: In the present investigation, different landraces of Joha rice were surveyed during 2016-2019. 15 landraces were selected, based on their morphological characters and local data. The collected germplasm of Joha rice was grown in the experimental plots and DNA from young, healthy leaves were isolated which were further used for determination of genetic diversity using SSR markers. Thirty-eight SSR markers were used to evaluate the genetic relationship among the fifteen aromatic rice landraces. 
 
Result: A total of 110 polymorphic alleles were detected by 34 markers across all the landraces, with an average of 3.25 per locus. The Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) ranged from 0.24 to 0.83, with an average of 0.5 for each marker. The marker RM154, RM454 and RM489 produced maximum six alleles showing PIC value of 0.82, 0.82 and 0.83, indicating a high polymorphism. UPGMA cluster analysis using Jaccard&rsquo;s similarity index produced a dendrogram clustering the rice landraces in three major groups and five subgroups. Group II, which consisted of five sub-groups and 12 landraces, showed diverse genotypes. These landraces showed significant genetic similarities.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Assessment of the Genetic Diversity of Joha Rice Germplasms by using Simple Sequence Repeat Markers</div>

Background: Limited genetic variation exists within chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) owing to its narrow genetic base. Consequently, the DNA-based markers i.e. simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers that show considerable polymorphism in other crops reveal limited polymorphism in chickpea. Development of saturated linkage maps, marker assisted selection and gene cloning needs larger number of polymorphic markers which necessitates development of additional SSR markers for chickpea. Microsatellite marker development is costly, requires a great research expertise and effort. The cross-genera transferability of pre-developed SSR markers is a good alternative to new SSR marker development. 
 
Methods: To generate additional SSR markers for chickpea, a total of 292 SSR markers from horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum, 94 SSRs), lentil (Lens culinaris, 66 SSRs) and pea (Pisum sativum, 132 SSRs) were evaluated for cross-transferability to chickpea using a panel of four chickpea genotypes-GPF2, ICC16349, ICC10685 and ICC15614. 
 
Result: Lentil SSR markers had highest transferability to chickpea (36.36%) followed by pea (18.18%) and horsegram (14.89%). Limited polymorphism was detected in chickpea; 10.61% by lentil markers, 4.25% by horsegram markers and 3.79% by pea markers. Overall, 62 new SSR markers were added to repository of chickpea SSRs.&nbsp;