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Full Research Article

Growth Attributes Productivity and Chlorophyll Content of Mungbean Varieties as Influenced by Fertility Levels and Stress Mitigating Chemicals

D
Devi Lal Dhaker1
J
Jai Prakash Gupta2
N
Navneet Kaur3
B
Bharat Chandra Nath4
A
Atin Kumar5
K
Kaushal Kumar Pandey6
S
Seweta Srivastava7
J
Jay Prakash Singh6,*
S
Shivam Maurya7,*
1Department of Agronomy, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner-303 329, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
2Department of Seed Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Allied Industries, Rama University, Kanpur-209 217, Uttar Pradesh, India.
3Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, GNA University, Phagwara-144 401, Punjab, India.
4Department of Plant Pathology, AICRP on Seed (Crops), Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785 013, Assam, India.
5School of Agriculture, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun-248 007, Uttarakhand, India.
6Department of Agronomy, Shree Murli Manohar Town Degree College Ballia, Balia-277 001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
7Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara-144 411, Punjab, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Appropriate fertility management and stress-mitigating chemicals can improve mungbean growth, physiological activity and yield. This study evaluated the effects of fertility levels and stress-relieving chemicals on the growth, chlorophyll content and yield of two mungbean varieties and examined their relationships with seed yield.

Methods: A field experiment was conducted using a split-plot design with 24 treatment combinations and three replications. Varieties (IPM 02-3 and RMG 492) and four fertility levels (Control, 75%, 100% and 125% RDF) were assigned to main plots, while three stress-relieving treatments (Control, thioglycolic acid @ 100 ppm and salicylic acid @ 100 ppm) were assigned to sub-plots. Correlation and regression analyses were also performed.

Results: Variety RMG 492 significantly outperformed IPM 02-3 for dry matter accumulation, total and effective nodules, fresh and dry nodule weight, chlorophyll content, yield attributes and seed yield. Application of 125% RDF recorded superior growth and chlorophyll parameters over the control and 75% RDF and remained comparable with 100% RDF. The 100% RDF treatment significantly improved yield attributes and seed yield over the control and 75% RDF, while remaining comparable with 125% RDF. Foliar application of thioglycolic acid @ 100 ppm significantly enhanced growth, nodulation and chlorophyll content over the control and was comparable with salicylic acid @ 100 ppm. Similarly, thioglycolic acid improved yield attributes and seed yield, with results comparable to salicylic acid. Growth and yield parameters exhibited strong positive correlations with seed yield.

INTRODUCTION

After cereals and oilseeds, pulses are one of the most important food crops in Indian agriculture. They are a vital part of the Indian diet and offer a good source of plant-based protein, especially when eaten with cereals. However, attaining self-sufficiency in pulse production is still severely hampered by low productivity. Since mungbean is primarily grown under rainfed conditions, soil moisture availability and rainfall have a significant impact on the crop’s productivity. Additionally, persistent intensive farming can cause the soil to lose a number of vital nutrients, which will have a negative impact on mungbean yield and growth (Dhakal et al., 2015).
       
The amount and timing of fertilizer application, which are dependent on the initial soil fertility status and moisture availability conditions, have a significant impact on crop productivity (Karthik et al., 2023). The effective root nodules of the legume crop mungbean have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Rhizobium found in the root nodules provides the majority of the nitrogen. Therefore, a starter dose of nitrogen is necessary for the crop’s initial growth and development and applying a higher dose of nitrogen may result in fewer nodules and slower nodule growth, which would negatively impact the crop’s ability to fix nitrogen (Zhang et al., 2014). Phosphorus is the most important mineral nutrient for legume crops because it improves root development and growth, which increases the crops’ capacity for biological nitrogen fixation (Maitin and Ebeling, 2001).
       
Agricultural production has increased substantially with the adoption of high-yielding varieties, which require intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to sustain soil fertility and crop nutrition (Meena et al., 2021). However, indiscriminate application of these inputs has adversely affected groundwater quality, soil agro-ecology and plant health (Banotra et al., 2021). Balanced fertilizer management is therefore essential for sustaining productivity and soil health. Since the basal application of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) alone may not meet the crop nutrient demand during later growth stages, proper fertility management becomes crucial for enhancing mungbean productivity. Meena and Varma (2016) reported significant improvement in seed yield, straw yield, biological yield, total NPK uptake and protein content with 100% RDF, while Patel et al., (2016) also observed enhanced yield and yield attributes with combined application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, mungbean cultivation is frequently constrained by abiotic stresses such as high temperature, erratic rainfall and moisture deficit during the kharif season. Stress mitigating chemicals help regulate hormonal balance, conserve plant energy and improve tolerance to adverse environmental conditions by regulating growth, source-sink relationships and nutrient allocation (Shabir et al., 2016). Among these, thioglycolic acid (TGA), a sulphydryl compound, enhances photosynthesis, ion transport, stomatal regulation and stress tolerance through the plant thioredoxin system. Salicylic acid (SA), a naturally occurring phenolic compound (ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid), functions as an important signaling molecule and is applied through seed treatment, nutrient solutions or foliar spray to alleviate biotic and abiotic stresses and improve plant growth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research site
 
During kharif in 2022 and 2023, the experiment was carried out on field No. 10 at Agronomy Farm, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, Rajasthan. At a height of 427 meters above mean sea level, Jobner is located 45 kilometers west of Jaipur at latitude 26°05° North and longitude 75°28° East. The area is located in Rajasthan’s semi-arid Eastern Plain Zone, or Agroclimatic Zone IIIa.
 
Climatic conditions
 
The area has a typical semi-arid climate with high summer and winter temperatures, little precipitation and moderate relative humidity. Summer temperatures can reach as high as 48°C, while winter temperatures can drop as low as 0°C. Ninety per cent of this zone’s 400-450 mm annual rainfall falls between July and September. Table 1 displays the average weekly weather parameters for the crop-growing season as recorded at the S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner meteorological observatory.

Table 1: Mean weekly weather parameters recorded during crop season (kharif, 2022 and 2023).


 
Experimental details
 
Treatments 
 
The field experiment consisting of 24 treatments (2 varieties, 4 fertility levels and 3 stress mitigating chemicals) was laid out in split plot design with three replications. The allotment of treatments to various plots in each replication was done randomly. The treatment details comprising varieties, fertility levels and stress-mitigating chemical applications are given in Table 2.

​

Table 2: Treatment combinations involving mungbean varieties, fertility levels and stress-mitigating chemicals evaluated under split-plot design.


 
Stress mitigating chemicals
 
Stress mitigation chemicals (thioglycolic acid 100 ppm and salicylic acid 100 ppm) were measured as per treatment and dissolved in water (600 litres ha-1). The stress mitigating chemicals were sprayed using knapsack sprayer at 25 and 45 days after sowing (DAS) as per layout plan.
 
Threshing
 
After complete drying, the produce of each plot was weighed on physical valance and recorded as biological yield (kg/ha).
 
Accumulation of dry matter
 
At 25, 50 DAS and harvest, periodic variations in the amount of dry matter accumulated per meter row length were noted.
 
Nodules per plant
 
Five plants from each plot were chosen at random in sampling rows to count the number of root nodules per plant at 45 DAS. The plants were then carefully uprooted after the soil had been moistened and dug down to a depth of 30 cm.
 
Per plant effective root nodules
 
Out of all the nodules on each plant, the pink-colored nodules that contained leghaemoglobin were counted as effective nodules.
 
Dry and fresh weight of nodules
 
The fresh weight of the nodules at 45 DAS was noted after the total number of nodules was determined and each nodule was individually extracted from the plant’s roots using forceps.
 
Chlorophyll content (mg/g)
 
Using 50 mg of fresh leaf material, the chlorophyll content of mungbean was measured 40 days after sowing using the method recommended by Arnon (1949).
 
 
 
Where,
α = Path length = 1 cm
 
Seed yield
 
Following threshing, winnowing and cleaning, each plot’s produce was weighed individually in kilograms before being converted to a seed yield in kilograms per hectare.
 
Statistical analysis
 
The data were statistically analyzed as outlined by Panse and Sukhatme (1985) to determine the significance of variation in experimental data obtained for different treatment effects. When the “f” test was deemed significant at the 5% probability level, the critical differences were computed to evaluate the significance of treatment means.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Dry matter accumulation and number of branches per plant
 
Dry matter accumulation at 25 DAS did not differ significantly between the two mungbean varieties in either year or in the pooled analysis (Table 3), suggesting similar crop establishment under similar fertility and environmental conditions. Nevertheless, RMG 492 accumulated considerably more dry matter than IPM 02-3 at later growth stages, with increases of 5.7% at 50 DAS and 11.1% at harvest on a pooled basis. In a similar vein, RMG 492 increased branch production per plant by 25.1% at 50 DAS and 24.8% at harvest compared to IPM 02-3 (Table 4). RMG 492’s superior performance can be ascribed to its favorable genetic composition, increased branching and improved photosynthate production, which ultimately improved yield potential. Similar findings were reported by Goswami et al., (2009).

Table 3: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on dry matter accumulation of mungbean.


       
Branching and dry matter accumulation were strongly impacted by fertility levels. Despite having the highest dry matter accumulation, 125% RDF was statistically comparable to 100% RDF during the crop growth period (Table 3). At 25 DAS, 50 DAS and harvest, 125% RDF increased dry matter accumulation by 13.9%, 25.7% and 38.3% over control and by 5.9%, 9.6% and 14.3% over 75% RDF, respectively. Similarly, compared to control and 75% RDF, 125% RDF increased branches per plant by 93.0% and 25.0% at 50 DAS and 92.9% and 23.0% at harvest, respectively (Table 4), while staying on par with 100% RDF. Higher fertility levels improved photosynthesis, assimilate translocation and vegetative growth by increasing nutrient availability corroborating the findings of Dongare et al., (2016) and Singh et al., (2017).

Table 4: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on branches of mungbean.


       
Chemicals that reduce stress had no discernible effect on dry matter accumulation at 25 DAS. Thioglycolic acid (TGA) at 100 ppm applied topically, however, greatly increased dry matter accumulation at 50 DAS and harvest while remaining statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) at 100 ppm. When compared to the control, TGA raised dry matter accumulation by 8.1% at 50 DAS and 11.7% at harvest. In a similar vein, TGA and SA considerably increased the number of branches per plant, with TGA outperforming the control by 24.5% and 51.0% at 50 DAS and harvest, respectively. Meena et al., (2014) and Godara et al., (2012) have also reported improvements in photosynthetic CO2 fixation, physiological efficiency and assimilate partitioning under TGA application.
 
Root nodules
 
Mungbean nodulation was greatly impacted by varietal differences. Compared to IPM 02-3, variety RMG 492 generated substantially more total and effective root nodules, with increases of 10.2% and 23.9%, respectively (Table 4; Fig 1). Additionally, the fresh weight and dry weight of nodules increased by 7.5% and 4.9%, respectively. RMG 492’s superior nodulation may be explained by its advantageous genetic composition and superior climate adaptation. Yadav et al., (2011) reported similar results.

Fig 1: Impact of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on nodules of mungbean.


       
Nodulation characteristics were greatly enhanced by fertility levels. During both the years and the pooled analysis, 125% RDF, which stayed statistically equivalent to 100% RDF, recorded significantly more total and effective nodules than control and 75% RDF (Table 5). Effective nodules increased by 41.5% and 12.7%, respectively, while total nodules increased by 27.4% over control and 11.7% over 75% RDF on a pooled basis. Additionally, nodule fresh and dry weights rose by 20.0% and 17.9% over control and by 10.1% and 7.6% over 75% RDF, respectively. The increased availability of N, P and K, especially phosphorus, which encourages root growth, biological nitrogen fixation and assimilate translocation to developing nodules, may be the cause of the improvement in nodulation. Similar results were reported by Dongare et al., (2016) and Singh et al., (2017).

Table 5: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on number of total and effective nodules of mungbean.


       
Thioglycolic acid (TGA) foliar application at 100 ppm was one of the stress-reducing chemicals that produced significantly more total and effective nodules than the control, but it was statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) foliar application at 100 ppm. When compared to the control, TGA improved the fresh and dry weight of nodules by 11.7% and 8.5%, respectively and increased total and effective nodules by 6.8% and 7.0%. Enhanced photosynthetic CO2 fixation, increased physiological efficiency and improved assimilate partitioning under TGA application may be responsible for the improvement (Meena et al., 2014; Godara et al., 2012), whereas salicylic acid improved nodulation by increasing photosynthesis, nutrient translocation and plant growth. Similar findings were reported by Majeed et al., (2016).
 
Yield attributes
 
Mungbean varieties’ yield attributes varied considerably over the course of the years and in the pooled analysis (Table 6). Variety RMG 492 outperformed IPM 02-3 in terms of genetic potential, dry matter accumulation and photosynthate translocation in semi-arid conditions, resulting in 7.5% more pods per plant, 16.2% more seeds per pod and 9.5% more test weight. Goswami et al., (2010) and Verma et al., (2011) reported similar results.

Table 6: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on yield attributes of mungbean.


       
In terms of fertility levels, 125% RDF was statistically comparable to 100% RDF but recorded significantly more pods per plant, seeds per pod and test weight than control and 75% RDF. Pooled data showed increases in pods per plant of 34.8% and 12.9%, seeds per pod of 23.7% and 9.2% and test weight of 21.2% and 7.7% over control and 75% RDF, respectively. Verma and Yadav (2019) and Togay et al., (2008) reported similar findings.
       
While remaining comparable to salicylic acid (SA) @ 100 ppm, foliar application of thioglycolic acid (TGA) @ 100 ppm greatly increased pods per plant, seeds per pod and test weight by 8.9%, 11.4% and 6.6%, respectively, over the control. As also reported by Kumawat et al., (2014), Hassanein et al., (2012) and Sharma et al., (2013), the improvement was ascribed to increased photosynthetic efficiency and assimilate translocation under stress conditions.
 
Chlorophyll content
 
Mungbean varieties’ total chlorophyll content at 40 DAS varied considerably over the course of the years and in the pooled analysis (Table 7). Because of its better genetic composition and photosynthetic efficiency, variety RMG 492 had a 16.6% higher chlorophyll content than IPM 02-3. Goswami et al., (2009) and Yadav et al., (2011) reported similar findings.

Table 7: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on chlorophyll content of mungbean.


       
While the chlorophyll content of 125% RDF was statistically comparable to that of 100% RDF, it was significantly higher than that of control and 75% RDF among fertility levels. Chlorophyll content rose by 13.6% over 75% RDF and 37.9% over control on a pooled basis, mostly as a result of increased NPK availability, which promoted photosynthesis and crop growth. Choudhary and Yadav (2011) reported similar results.
       
Thioglycolic acid (TGA) at 100 ppm applied topically increased the amount of chlorophyll by 12.3% compared to the control and was comparable to salicylic acid (SA) at 100 ppm. The improvement was ascribed to increased photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll synthesis under stress. Nathawat et al., (2016) reported similar findings.
 
Seed yield
 
The seed yields of mungbean varieties varied significantly over time and in the pooled analysis (Table 8). Variety RMG 492 produced 10.8% more seeds than IPM 02-3 due to its superior genetic potential, enhanced dry matter accumulation, vigorous branching and improved photosynthate translocation. Similar findings were reported by Goswami et al., (2010) and Verma et al., (2011).

Table 8: Correlation coefficients (r) for the relationship between seed yield (Y) and yield attributing characters and total nutrient uptake by crop (X).


       
Among fertility levels, 100% RDF recorded the highest seed yield (1025 kg ha-1), which was significantly superior to control and 75% RDF, but remained statistically at par with 125% RDF. On pooled basis, seed yield increased by 57.9% over control and 14.5% over 75% RDF, owing to improved nutrient availability, plant growth and photosynthetic efficiency. Similar results were reported by Meena et al., (2013) and Manoj et al., (2014).
       
The highest seed yield (985 kg ha-1) was obtained by foliar application of thioglycolic acid (TGA) @ 100 ppm, which showed a 10.0% increase over the control and was statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) @ 100 ppm. Improved photosynthetic efficiency, the source-sink relationship and assimilate translocation were all credited with the increased yield. Nathawat et al., (2016) and Leila et al., (2014) reported similar results.
 
Correlation and regression studies
 
To study the relationship of seed yield with crop dry matter production, yield attributes and nutrient uptake by the crop, correlation and regression studies were made which are presented in Table 8 and 9.

Table 9: Regression equations for the relationship between seed yield (Y) and yield attributing characters (X).

CONCLUSION

One of the most important pulse crops farmed in Rajasthan is mungbean. This crop’s growth and development have not yet reached their full potential, which is greatly impacted by the variety type, fertility levels and chemicals that reduce stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how different mungbean cultivars react to fertility levels and chemicals that reduce stress. After two years of testing, it can be said that the mungbean variety RMG 492 outperformed IPM 02-3 in terms of growth, yield characteristics, seed yield and chlorophyll content. A 125% RDF application showed noticeably higher growth and yield parameters, chlorophyll content and seed yield compared to previous doses among the fertility levels. When stress-reducing chemicals were applied topically, growth, yield parameters, chlorophyll content and productivity all increased. All of these growth and yield characteristics showed a strong and positive correlation with mungbean seed yield. Therefore, choosing the right variety, applying the right amount of fertilizer and spraying stress-reducing chemicals are essential to achieving greater mungbean growth and productivity in Rajasthan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I greatly acknowledge to my research guide for their support during research work for the completion of my PhD degree programme.
 
Authors contribution
 
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

AI Declaration
 
All intellectual content and research work presented are my own.
 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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    Full Research Article

    Growth Attributes Productivity and Chlorophyll Content of Mungbean Varieties as Influenced by Fertility Levels and Stress Mitigating Chemicals

    D
    Devi Lal Dhaker1
    J
    Jai Prakash Gupta2
    N
    Navneet Kaur3
    B
    Bharat Chandra Nath4
    A
    Atin Kumar5
    K
    Kaushal Kumar Pandey6
    S
    Seweta Srivastava7
    J
    Jay Prakash Singh6,*
    S
    Shivam Maurya7,*
    1Department of Agronomy, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner-303 329, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
    2Department of Seed Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Allied Industries, Rama University, Kanpur-209 217, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    3Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, GNA University, Phagwara-144 401, Punjab, India.
    4Department of Plant Pathology, AICRP on Seed (Crops), Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785 013, Assam, India.
    5School of Agriculture, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun-248 007, Uttarakhand, India.
    6Department of Agronomy, Shree Murli Manohar Town Degree College Ballia, Balia-277 001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    7Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara-144 411, Punjab, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Appropriate fertility management and stress-mitigating chemicals can improve mungbean growth, physiological activity and yield. This study evaluated the effects of fertility levels and stress-relieving chemicals on the growth, chlorophyll content and yield of two mungbean varieties and examined their relationships with seed yield.

    Methods: A field experiment was conducted using a split-plot design with 24 treatment combinations and three replications. Varieties (IPM 02-3 and RMG 492) and four fertility levels (Control, 75%, 100% and 125% RDF) were assigned to main plots, while three stress-relieving treatments (Control, thioglycolic acid @ 100 ppm and salicylic acid @ 100 ppm) were assigned to sub-plots. Correlation and regression analyses were also performed.

    Results: Variety RMG 492 significantly outperformed IPM 02-3 for dry matter accumulation, total and effective nodules, fresh and dry nodule weight, chlorophyll content, yield attributes and seed yield. Application of 125% RDF recorded superior growth and chlorophyll parameters over the control and 75% RDF and remained comparable with 100% RDF. The 100% RDF treatment significantly improved yield attributes and seed yield over the control and 75% RDF, while remaining comparable with 125% RDF. Foliar application of thioglycolic acid @ 100 ppm significantly enhanced growth, nodulation and chlorophyll content over the control and was comparable with salicylic acid @ 100 ppm. Similarly, thioglycolic acid improved yield attributes and seed yield, with results comparable to salicylic acid. Growth and yield parameters exhibited strong positive correlations with seed yield.

    INTRODUCTION

    After cereals and oilseeds, pulses are one of the most important food crops in Indian agriculture. They are a vital part of the Indian diet and offer a good source of plant-based protein, especially when eaten with cereals. However, attaining self-sufficiency in pulse production is still severely hampered by low productivity. Since mungbean is primarily grown under rainfed conditions, soil moisture availability and rainfall have a significant impact on the crop’s productivity. Additionally, persistent intensive farming can cause the soil to lose a number of vital nutrients, which will have a negative impact on mungbean yield and growth (Dhakal et al., 2015).
           
    The amount and timing of fertilizer application, which are dependent on the initial soil fertility status and moisture availability conditions, have a significant impact on crop productivity (Karthik et al., 2023). The effective root nodules of the legume crop mungbean have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Rhizobium found in the root nodules provides the majority of the nitrogen. Therefore, a starter dose of nitrogen is necessary for the crop’s initial growth and development and applying a higher dose of nitrogen may result in fewer nodules and slower nodule growth, which would negatively impact the crop’s ability to fix nitrogen (Zhang et al., 2014). Phosphorus is the most important mineral nutrient for legume crops because it improves root development and growth, which increases the crops’ capacity for biological nitrogen fixation (Maitin and Ebeling, 2001).
           
    Agricultural production has increased substantially with the adoption of high-yielding varieties, which require intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to sustain soil fertility and crop nutrition (Meena et al., 2021). However, indiscriminate application of these inputs has adversely affected groundwater quality, soil agro-ecology and plant health (Banotra et al., 2021). Balanced fertilizer management is therefore essential for sustaining productivity and soil health. Since the basal application of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) alone may not meet the crop nutrient demand during later growth stages, proper fertility management becomes crucial for enhancing mungbean productivity. Meena and Varma (2016) reported significant improvement in seed yield, straw yield, biological yield, total NPK uptake and protein content with 100% RDF, while Patel et al., (2016) also observed enhanced yield and yield attributes with combined application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, mungbean cultivation is frequently constrained by abiotic stresses such as high temperature, erratic rainfall and moisture deficit during the kharif season. Stress mitigating chemicals help regulate hormonal balance, conserve plant energy and improve tolerance to adverse environmental conditions by regulating growth, source-sink relationships and nutrient allocation (Shabir et al., 2016). Among these, thioglycolic acid (TGA), a sulphydryl compound, enhances photosynthesis, ion transport, stomatal regulation and stress tolerance through the plant thioredoxin system. Salicylic acid (SA), a naturally occurring phenolic compound (ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid), functions as an important signaling molecule and is applied through seed treatment, nutrient solutions or foliar spray to alleviate biotic and abiotic stresses and improve plant growth.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Research site
     
    During kharif in 2022 and 2023, the experiment was carried out on field No. 10 at Agronomy Farm, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, Rajasthan. At a height of 427 meters above mean sea level, Jobner is located 45 kilometers west of Jaipur at latitude 26°05° North and longitude 75°28° East. The area is located in Rajasthan’s semi-arid Eastern Plain Zone, or Agroclimatic Zone IIIa.
     
    Climatic conditions
     
    The area has a typical semi-arid climate with high summer and winter temperatures, little precipitation and moderate relative humidity. Summer temperatures can reach as high as 48°C, while winter temperatures can drop as low as 0°C. Ninety per cent of this zone’s 400-450 mm annual rainfall falls between July and September. Table 1 displays the average weekly weather parameters for the crop-growing season as recorded at the S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner meteorological observatory.

    Table 1: Mean weekly weather parameters recorded during crop season (kharif, 2022 and 2023).


     
    Experimental details
     
    Treatments 
     
    The field experiment consisting of 24 treatments (2 varieties, 4 fertility levels and 3 stress mitigating chemicals) was laid out in split plot design with three replications. The allotment of treatments to various plots in each replication was done randomly. The treatment details comprising varieties, fertility levels and stress-mitigating chemical applications are given in Table 2.

    ​

    Table 2: Treatment combinations involving mungbean varieties, fertility levels and stress-mitigating chemicals evaluated under split-plot design.


     
    Stress mitigating chemicals
     
    Stress mitigation chemicals (thioglycolic acid 100 ppm and salicylic acid 100 ppm) were measured as per treatment and dissolved in water (600 litres ha-1). The stress mitigating chemicals were sprayed using knapsack sprayer at 25 and 45 days after sowing (DAS) as per layout plan.
     
    Threshing
     
    After complete drying, the produce of each plot was weighed on physical valance and recorded as biological yield (kg/ha).
     
    Accumulation of dry matter
     
    At 25, 50 DAS and harvest, periodic variations in the amount of dry matter accumulated per meter row length were noted.
     
    Nodules per plant
     
    Five plants from each plot were chosen at random in sampling rows to count the number of root nodules per plant at 45 DAS. The plants were then carefully uprooted after the soil had been moistened and dug down to a depth of 30 cm.
     
    Per plant effective root nodules
     
    Out of all the nodules on each plant, the pink-colored nodules that contained leghaemoglobin were counted as effective nodules.
     
    Dry and fresh weight of nodules
     
    The fresh weight of the nodules at 45 DAS was noted after the total number of nodules was determined and each nodule was individually extracted from the plant’s roots using forceps.
     
    Chlorophyll content (mg/g)
     
    Using 50 mg of fresh leaf material, the chlorophyll content of mungbean was measured 40 days after sowing using the method recommended by Arnon (1949).
     
     
     
    Where,
    α = Path length = 1 cm
     
    Seed yield
     
    Following threshing, winnowing and cleaning, each plot’s produce was weighed individually in kilograms before being converted to a seed yield in kilograms per hectare.
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    The data were statistically analyzed as outlined by Panse and Sukhatme (1985) to determine the significance of variation in experimental data obtained for different treatment effects. When the “f” test was deemed significant at the 5% probability level, the critical differences were computed to evaluate the significance of treatment means.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Dry matter accumulation and number of branches per plant
     
    Dry matter accumulation at 25 DAS did not differ significantly between the two mungbean varieties in either year or in the pooled analysis (Table 3), suggesting similar crop establishment under similar fertility and environmental conditions. Nevertheless, RMG 492 accumulated considerably more dry matter than IPM 02-3 at later growth stages, with increases of 5.7% at 50 DAS and 11.1% at harvest on a pooled basis. In a similar vein, RMG 492 increased branch production per plant by 25.1% at 50 DAS and 24.8% at harvest compared to IPM 02-3 (Table 4). RMG 492’s superior performance can be ascribed to its favorable genetic composition, increased branching and improved photosynthate production, which ultimately improved yield potential. Similar findings were reported by Goswami et al., (2009).

    Table 3: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on dry matter accumulation of mungbean.


           
    Branching and dry matter accumulation were strongly impacted by fertility levels. Despite having the highest dry matter accumulation, 125% RDF was statistically comparable to 100% RDF during the crop growth period (Table 3). At 25 DAS, 50 DAS and harvest, 125% RDF increased dry matter accumulation by 13.9%, 25.7% and 38.3% over control and by 5.9%, 9.6% and 14.3% over 75% RDF, respectively. Similarly, compared to control and 75% RDF, 125% RDF increased branches per plant by 93.0% and 25.0% at 50 DAS and 92.9% and 23.0% at harvest, respectively (Table 4), while staying on par with 100% RDF. Higher fertility levels improved photosynthesis, assimilate translocation and vegetative growth by increasing nutrient availability corroborating the findings of Dongare et al., (2016) and Singh et al., (2017).

    Table 4: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on branches of mungbean.


           
    Chemicals that reduce stress had no discernible effect on dry matter accumulation at 25 DAS. Thioglycolic acid (TGA) at 100 ppm applied topically, however, greatly increased dry matter accumulation at 50 DAS and harvest while remaining statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) at 100 ppm. When compared to the control, TGA raised dry matter accumulation by 8.1% at 50 DAS and 11.7% at harvest. In a similar vein, TGA and SA considerably increased the number of branches per plant, with TGA outperforming the control by 24.5% and 51.0% at 50 DAS and harvest, respectively. Meena et al., (2014) and Godara et al., (2012) have also reported improvements in photosynthetic CO2 fixation, physiological efficiency and assimilate partitioning under TGA application.
     
    Root nodules
     
    Mungbean nodulation was greatly impacted by varietal differences. Compared to IPM 02-3, variety RMG 492 generated substantially more total and effective root nodules, with increases of 10.2% and 23.9%, respectively (Table 4; Fig 1). Additionally, the fresh weight and dry weight of nodules increased by 7.5% and 4.9%, respectively. RMG 492’s superior nodulation may be explained by its advantageous genetic composition and superior climate adaptation. Yadav et al., (2011) reported similar results.

    Fig 1: Impact of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on nodules of mungbean.


           
    Nodulation characteristics were greatly enhanced by fertility levels. During both the years and the pooled analysis, 125% RDF, which stayed statistically equivalent to 100% RDF, recorded significantly more total and effective nodules than control and 75% RDF (Table 5). Effective nodules increased by 41.5% and 12.7%, respectively, while total nodules increased by 27.4% over control and 11.7% over 75% RDF on a pooled basis. Additionally, nodule fresh and dry weights rose by 20.0% and 17.9% over control and by 10.1% and 7.6% over 75% RDF, respectively. The increased availability of N, P and K, especially phosphorus, which encourages root growth, biological nitrogen fixation and assimilate translocation to developing nodules, may be the cause of the improvement in nodulation. Similar results were reported by Dongare et al., (2016) and Singh et al., (2017).

    Table 5: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on number of total and effective nodules of mungbean.


           
    Thioglycolic acid (TGA) foliar application at 100 ppm was one of the stress-reducing chemicals that produced significantly more total and effective nodules than the control, but it was statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) foliar application at 100 ppm. When compared to the control, TGA improved the fresh and dry weight of nodules by 11.7% and 8.5%, respectively and increased total and effective nodules by 6.8% and 7.0%. Enhanced photosynthetic CO2 fixation, increased physiological efficiency and improved assimilate partitioning under TGA application may be responsible for the improvement (Meena et al., 2014; Godara et al., 2012), whereas salicylic acid improved nodulation by increasing photosynthesis, nutrient translocation and plant growth. Similar findings were reported by Majeed et al., (2016).
     
    Yield attributes
     
    Mungbean varieties’ yield attributes varied considerably over the course of the years and in the pooled analysis (Table 6). Variety RMG 492 outperformed IPM 02-3 in terms of genetic potential, dry matter accumulation and photosynthate translocation in semi-arid conditions, resulting in 7.5% more pods per plant, 16.2% more seeds per pod and 9.5% more test weight. Goswami et al., (2010) and Verma et al., (2011) reported similar results.

    Table 6: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on yield attributes of mungbean.


           
    In terms of fertility levels, 125% RDF was statistically comparable to 100% RDF but recorded significantly more pods per plant, seeds per pod and test weight than control and 75% RDF. Pooled data showed increases in pods per plant of 34.8% and 12.9%, seeds per pod of 23.7% and 9.2% and test weight of 21.2% and 7.7% over control and 75% RDF, respectively. Verma and Yadav (2019) and Togay et al., (2008) reported similar findings.
           
    While remaining comparable to salicylic acid (SA) @ 100 ppm, foliar application of thioglycolic acid (TGA) @ 100 ppm greatly increased pods per plant, seeds per pod and test weight by 8.9%, 11.4% and 6.6%, respectively, over the control. As also reported by Kumawat et al., (2014), Hassanein et al., (2012) and Sharma et al., (2013), the improvement was ascribed to increased photosynthetic efficiency and assimilate translocation under stress conditions.
     
    Chlorophyll content
     
    Mungbean varieties’ total chlorophyll content at 40 DAS varied considerably over the course of the years and in the pooled analysis (Table 7). Because of its better genetic composition and photosynthetic efficiency, variety RMG 492 had a 16.6% higher chlorophyll content than IPM 02-3. Goswami et al., (2009) and Yadav et al., (2011) reported similar findings.

    Table 7: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and stress mitigating chemicals on chlorophyll content of mungbean.


           
    While the chlorophyll content of 125% RDF was statistically comparable to that of 100% RDF, it was significantly higher than that of control and 75% RDF among fertility levels. Chlorophyll content rose by 13.6% over 75% RDF and 37.9% over control on a pooled basis, mostly as a result of increased NPK availability, which promoted photosynthesis and crop growth. Choudhary and Yadav (2011) reported similar results.
           
    Thioglycolic acid (TGA) at 100 ppm applied topically increased the amount of chlorophyll by 12.3% compared to the control and was comparable to salicylic acid (SA) at 100 ppm. The improvement was ascribed to increased photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll synthesis under stress. Nathawat et al., (2016) reported similar findings.
     
    Seed yield
     
    The seed yields of mungbean varieties varied significantly over time and in the pooled analysis (Table 8). Variety RMG 492 produced 10.8% more seeds than IPM 02-3 due to its superior genetic potential, enhanced dry matter accumulation, vigorous branching and improved photosynthate translocation. Similar findings were reported by Goswami et al., (2010) and Verma et al., (2011).

    Table 8: Correlation coefficients (r) for the relationship between seed yield (Y) and yield attributing characters and total nutrient uptake by crop (X).


           
    Among fertility levels, 100% RDF recorded the highest seed yield (1025 kg ha-1), which was significantly superior to control and 75% RDF, but remained statistically at par with 125% RDF. On pooled basis, seed yield increased by 57.9% over control and 14.5% over 75% RDF, owing to improved nutrient availability, plant growth and photosynthetic efficiency. Similar results were reported by Meena et al., (2013) and Manoj et al., (2014).
           
    The highest seed yield (985 kg ha-1) was obtained by foliar application of thioglycolic acid (TGA) @ 100 ppm, which showed a 10.0% increase over the control and was statistically comparable to salicylic acid (SA) @ 100 ppm. Improved photosynthetic efficiency, the source-sink relationship and assimilate translocation were all credited with the increased yield. Nathawat et al., (2016) and Leila et al., (2014) reported similar results.
     
    Correlation and regression studies
     
    To study the relationship of seed yield with crop dry matter production, yield attributes and nutrient uptake by the crop, correlation and regression studies were made which are presented in Table 8 and 9.

    Table 9: Regression equations for the relationship between seed yield (Y) and yield attributing characters (X).

    CONCLUSION

    One of the most important pulse crops farmed in Rajasthan is mungbean. This crop’s growth and development have not yet reached their full potential, which is greatly impacted by the variety type, fertility levels and chemicals that reduce stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how different mungbean cultivars react to fertility levels and chemicals that reduce stress. After two years of testing, it can be said that the mungbean variety RMG 492 outperformed IPM 02-3 in terms of growth, yield characteristics, seed yield and chlorophyll content. A 125% RDF application showed noticeably higher growth and yield parameters, chlorophyll content and seed yield compared to previous doses among the fertility levels. When stress-reducing chemicals were applied topically, growth, yield parameters, chlorophyll content and productivity all increased. All of these growth and yield characteristics showed a strong and positive correlation with mungbean seed yield. Therefore, choosing the right variety, applying the right amount of fertilizer and spraying stress-reducing chemicals are essential to achieving greater mungbean growth and productivity in Rajasthan.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    I greatly acknowledge to my research guide for their support during research work for the completion of my PhD degree programme.
     
    Authors contribution
     
    All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

    AI Declaration
     
    All intellectual content and research work presented are my own.
     

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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