Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important pulse crops cultivated worldwide and constitutes nearly 20% of global pulse production, serving as a major source of dietary protein, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals in developing countries (Jukanti et al., 2012). India is the largest producer and consumer of chickpea, contributing about 70% of global production, where the crop plays a crucial role in nutritional security, soil fertility improvement and sustainable cropping systems (FAOSTAT, 2023). Despite its importance, the productivity of Bengal gram remains constrained by several biotic stresses, among which insect pests are the most destructive. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), is a highly polyphagous and economically important pest causing severe yield losses in chickpea-growing regions. The pest initially feeds as a defoliator during early crop growth stages and later damages flowers and developing pods, resulting in yield losses ranging from 30% to 80% depending on pest severity and environmental conditions (Ahmad et al., 2015). Excessive and indiscriminate use of conventional insecticides by farmers has led to problems such as pest resistance, resurgence, higher production costs and ecological imbalance. Hence, adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies involving need-based application of safer, new-generation insecticides has become essential for sustainable pod borer management (Nitharwal et al., 2017).
               
Ananthapuramu district of Andhra Pradesh, located in the Scarce Rainfall Zone (SRZ), represents a major Bengal gram growing region under rainfed conditions. However, studies indicate that farmers in this region have limited awareness and adoption of improved crop protection technologies, including seed treatment, pest monitoring tools and timely application of selective insecticides (Jyothi et al., 2019). The continued dependence on traditional pest management practices has resulted in a considerable technology gap and extension gap, ultimately affecting crop productivity and profitability (Prasad et al., 2022). Frontline demonstrations (FLDs), implemented through krishi vigyan kendras (KVKs), serve as an effective extension approach for demonstrating validated agricultural technologies under real farming situations. Unlike controlled research experiments, FLDs aim to enhance farmer confidence, facilitate technology dissemination and promote adoption of scientifically proven practices leading to higher productivity and economic returns (Reddy et al., 2024; Demonstration-based validation of IPM practices under farmers’ conditions is therefore critical for bridging the gap between research recommendations and field-level adoption.
               
In the Scarce Rainfall Zone of Andhra Pradesh, limited systematic demonstrations have been conducted to evaluate modern pest management technologies in Bengal gram under farmers’ field conditions. Therefore, the present study was undertaken through frontline demonstrations to demonstrate and validate recommended Integrated Pest Management practices for gram pod borer management across different locations of Ananthapuramu district, with the objective of improving productivity, profitability and farmer adoption under real farming situations.

Frontline demonstrations (FLDs) were conducted on farmers’ fields under the jurisdiction of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Reddipalli, during the rabi seasons of 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2022-23. The demonstrations were undertaken to validate recommended integrated pest management (IPM) practices for managing major insect pests of Bengal gram under farmers’ field conditions. The study also assessed the impact of the demonstrated IPM module on natural enemy populations and field safety of the treatments. A package of recommended Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices (Table 1) was demonstrated across 10 farmer-participatory fields for three consecutive years. The IPM module demonstrated included seed treatment, installation of Helicoverpa armigera pheromone traps, application of bio-pesticides and need-based spraying of recommended insecticides. However, for impact assessment under farmers’ field conditions, yield performance and pest reduction were primarily evaluated by comparing the Spinosad-based IPM intervention with the prevailing farmer insecticide practice. The total number of Helicoverpa armigera larvae was recorded from five randomly selected plants per treatment one day before insecticide application and at 3, 7 and 14 days after each of the two sprays, with a 15-day interval between applications. Natural enemies, namely Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius) and Coccinella septempunctata (Linnaeus), common generalist predators feeding mainly on aphids and other soft-bodied insects in Bengal gram ecosystem, were recorded at the same observation intervals to assess the ecological safety of the treatments. The percentage reduction of H. armigera population over the untreated control was calculated following Reddy et al., (2024). A separate field experiment was laid out in RBD with seven replications and a plot size of 100 m² to evaluate the phytotoxic effects of the tested insecticides. Phytotoxicity observations were recorded following CIBRC guidelines to confirm field safety of the recommended insecticides under farmers’ field conditions. No phytotoxic symptoms were observed during the observation period. Yield data were collected using a random crop-cutting method from both demonstration plots and farmer-practice plots. Adoption gaps were categorised as full adoption (no gap), partial adoption (partial gap) and no adoption (full gap). The adoption gap index was calculated as per Rajasekhar et al., (2022). Technology gap, extension gap, yield gap and technology index were computed using the standard procedures of Samui et al., (2000) and Rajasekhar et al., (2022).


 
Statistical analysis
 
Population data of H. armigera and natural enemies were arc sine transformed before analysis. Experimental data were analysed using randomized block design (RBD) as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984). Treatment means were separated using duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) (Duncan, 1951).

Spinosad 45 SC at 0.3 mL L^-1 and Profenophos 40% + Cypermethrin 4% EC at 2 mL L^-1 were demonstrated against H. armigera in Bengal gram over a three-year period from 2020 to 2022. Spinosad 45 SC at 0.3 mL L^-1 showed effective control of the larval population (mean population across all observations: 0.90, 0.71, 0.74/plant), with percentage reductions over control of 71.33%, 84.03% and 70.84% in 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively (Table 2) followed by Profenophos 40% + Cypermethrin 4% EC (mean population across all observations: 2.04, 3.14, 2.67/plant) resulted in percentage reductions of 19.00%, 21.88% and 21.52% during the years 2020-2022. The tested insecticides were comparatively safe to the natural enemies Cheilomenes sexmaculata and Coccinella septempunctata, as their populations were maintained or slightly increased after spraying (Table 3), indicating the selective action of the treatments and availability of alternative prey such as aphids and other soft-bodied insects in the crop ecosystem.




               
Table 4-6 present the cost-economic analysis of IPM strategies for managing H. armigera in Bengal gram during the years 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2022-23. The cost of insecticide usage played a significant role in the total cost of cultivation under farmer practices. The average total cost for IPM-based Bengal gram was Rs. 45,440, 52,729 and 60,302 for the years 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively (Tables 4-6), which was lower than the cost for traditional farmer practices (Rs. 58,950, 59,944 and 65,953). The yield obtained from the demonstration practice was higher (23.75, 22.55, 24.23 q/ha), showing an increase of 12.47%, 18.49% and 21.73% compared to the farmer practice (21.18, 19.05, 19.95 q/ha) in the years 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively. The net returns for the demonstration practice were recorded as 79,026, 69,041 and 105,646, which were greater than those from the farmer practice (52,033, 42,926 and 70,691) over the three years. The benefit-cost ratio was determined, indicating that the IPM practice for Bengal gram generated higher profits (1.74, 1.31, 1.75) compared to the farmer practice (0.89, 0.72, 1.07) in the respective years. The technology gap in the demonstration varied from 0.15 to 4.61 q/ha compared to the potential yields (Fig 1). The technology gap was at its minimum (0.77) during the year 2022-23, as higher rainfall during the 2022 Kharif season contributed to increased yields (Supplementary material). This was also reflected in the additional net returns achieved in 2022, which were 34,955 rupees, higher than those in 2020 (26,993 rupees) and 2021 (26,115 rupees). During the three years, the extension gap ranged between 1.08 and 5.67, whereas the yield gap fluctuated from 4.60 to 30.08. The overall impact of Spinosad-based IPM demonstrations on pest reduction, productivity enhancement, economic returns and ecological safety across the three years is summarized in Fig 2.










               
The use of the bio-pesticide Spinosad for managing pod borer during the early crop growth stages (before 40 DAS) likely contributed to yield improvement by minimizing flower and pod damage caused by larval feeding during the reproductive stage. Spinosad was highly effective in reducing Helicoverpa armigera populations below the economic threshold level. Its effectiveness may be attributed to its rapid knock-down action and prolonged residual toxicity against actively feeding larval stages. Spinosad acts primarily through contact and ingestion activity with translaminar movement within leaf tissues, ensuring effective control of exposed larvae while remaining comparatively safe to natural enemies. Similar results were reported by Sreekanth et al., (2014); Suneel and Sarada, (2015); Chandra et al., (2016); Nitharwal et al., (2017) and Gafar et al., (2024), who found that spinosad 45 SC effectively reduced the larval population of pod borer. This efficacy is due to spinosad unique mode of action, which involves binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the insect nervous system, leading to hyperactivity, paralysis and ultimately the death of the larvae as well as it provides long-term control for up to 15 days after spraying.
               
The current economics of bengalgram align with findings from studies conducted in various states of India by Kantwa et al., (2024); Ramesh et al., (2023); Singh et al., (2023); Yadav et al., (2024) and Yaligar et al., (2024). The technology gap, with an average range of 0.77 to 2.45 across all demonstrations over three years, suggests that timely cooperation from farmers in implementing critical IPM interventions could significantly impact the productivity of Bengal gram. The extension gap, varying from 1.1 to 5.67 q/ha, emphasizes the efforts of scientists in educating farmers about the significance of key IPM interventions during the crop growth phase. The relatively low technology index (3.09% to 9.80%) indicates the practicality of our technology in terms of net returns and individual farmer yields. A lower technology index indicates that the technology is more feasible. The average technology gap and extension gap highlight the necessity for further enhancement of extension efforts to close the gap and increase the adoption of improved technologies reported by Prasad et al., (2022).
               
Based on the above findings, it can be concluded that the use of appropriate scientific cultivation methods, particularly the timely application of insecticides before pest levels reaches the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) during critical stages, as demonstrated in the frontline demonstration program, significantly reduced the technology gap and contributed to increased productivity.

The three-year field result demonstration of Spinosad 45 SC at 0.3 mL L^-1 with farmers practice Profenophos 40% + Cypermethrin 4% EC clearly demonstated that spinosad was highly effective in managing Helicoverpa armigera, achieving 71.33%-84.03% reduction in larval population, compared with only 19. 00%-21.88% reduction under Profe-nophos 40% + Cypermethrin 4% EC.  Further the spinosad treatment recorded higher bengalgram yields (23.75-24.23 q ha^-1) than farmer practices (19.05-21.18 q ha^-1), along with increased net returns (₹ 79,026- ₹1,05,646 ha^-1) and improved benefit-cost ratios (1.31-1.75). The lower technology index (3.09%-9.80%) and reduced technology gap (0.77-4.61 q ha^-1) highlight the feasibility and adoptability of the demonstrated IPM strategy under real farm conditions. The observed extension gap (1.08-5.67 q ha^-1) highlights the need for strengthened extension activities and effective dissemination of recommended technologies to enhance farmer adoption. The absence of phytotoxic effects and the maintenance of predator populations indicate the ecological safety and compatibility of the recommended insecticides under field conditions. Overall, Spinosad-based IPM can be recommended as a sustainable, economically viable and environmentally compatible strategy for effective pod borer management in Bengal gram.

The authors thank the Programme Coordinator, KVK, Reddipalli for providing the facilities to carry out this experiment.
 
Financial support
 
The authors thank the ATARI ZONE X for providing the financial support to carry out this study as a part of technical programme.
 
Author contribution statement
 
BKKR conducted designed the experiment and conducted all the field experiments and manuscript drafting. SNM, MJ, GNS, GRR corrected the manuscript. GTM, KSR, GS, BC, MRK and KM assisted in conducting field experiment. GRR assisted in statistical analysis. All authors have seen and approved the manuscript and its contents.
 
Disclaimers
 
The opinions and conclusion outlined in this article reflect those of the author and should not be considered as representing the perspectives of their affiliated institutions. While the authors have ensured the accuracy and completeness of the information presented, they disclaim any responsibility for direct or indirect damages that may result from the application of this content.
 
Ethical statement
 
This study did not involve human participants or vertebrate animals. Field experiments were conducted in accordance with institutional and national agricultural research guidelines.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.