Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is one of the most indispensable cool-season food legumes globally, particularly in South Asia. It serves as a vital, dense source of high-quality plant-based protein (22-28%), essential amino acids and minerals. Beyond human nutrition, lentils play a critical role in sustainable agriculture through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, which improves soil health for subsequent cereal species. The productivity gap and breeding challenges as lentil output remains constrained by a narrow genetic base and susceptibility to various biotic and abiotic stresses. In regions like Western Uttar Pradesh, achieving higher seed performance, a complex trait governed by many polygenes, requires a deep understanding of the underlying genetic architecture. To break the productivity plateau, breeders must identify superior parents that possess high combining ability to produce transgressive segregants in subsequent cycles. Selection of parents based solely on phenotypic performance is often misleading, as high-performing parents do not always produce superior hybrids. The Line × Tester mating design (Table 1), provides a powerful statistical tool to estimate the general combining ability (GCA) of parents and the specific combining ability (SCA) of their hybrids, evaluating the nature of gene action (additive vs. non-additive) governing quantitative performance. This approach allows for the evaluation of a large number of germplasm lines (in this case, 15 lines and 3 testers). While several varieties have been developed, there is a continuous need for early-maturing and high-yielding genotypes tailored to the Rabi season of the North Indian plains. There is limited information on the combining ability of the specific genetic pool from IIPR (Kanpur) and IARI (New Delhi) when grown under the agro-climatic conditions of West Uttar Pradesh. Investigation was therefore undertaken at the Crop Research Centre, Janta Vedic College, to analyze the genetic components of yield-related traits. By evaluating 45 F1 hybrids alongside their 18 parents, this study aims to identify the good general combiners and promising cross combinations that can be utilized in pedigree or backcross breeding programs to enhance the seed yield potential of lentils.


       
The main concern with lentils is low yield potential because of the narrow genetic base of the local cultivars. Therefore, the key to increasing lentil yield (Hossain et al., 2016) in South Asia through widening the available genetic base. Key Producing States are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bundelkhand region Uttar Pradesh leads with 0.47 million tonnes (36.43% of national production) from 0.49 million hectares in 2022. Madhya Pradesh occupies second position with 0.44 million tonnes from 0.49 million hectares.

The experiment was conducted at the Crop Research Centre, Janta Vedic College, Meerut (CCS University) across two consecutive Rabi seasons (2022-23 and 2023-24). The experimental material comprised fifteen lines and three testers obtained from IIPR, Kanpur and IARI Pusa, New Delhi. The lines included IPL402, IPL321, IPL316, IPL81, KLB 1462, KLS 1455, Pant 2016, EC522160, IPLS-09-01, IPL 406, IPL526, Pant L7, Pant L02, B77 and Pant L117, while Sehore-74-3, K75 and DPL58 served as testers. During Rabi 2022-23, hybridization was carried out following a Line × Tester mating design to generate F1  seeds. In the subsequent Rabi 2023-24 season, the parents (lines and testers) along with their resulting F1  hybrids were evaluated in a randomized block design (RBD) with three replications. Observations for quantitative traits (Table 2) were recorded on five randomly selected, competitive plants from each replication, including plant height (cm), number of primary branches per plant, number of secondary branches per plant, number of pods per plant, 100-seed weight (g), seed yield per plant (g), biological yield per plant (g) and harvest index (%). In contrast, data for days to 50% flowering and days to maturity were recorded on a whole-plot basis, with maturity noted when 90% of the pods turned golden brown. Seed diameter (mm) was determined by measuring the average length of 10 seeds arranged in a row on a centimeter scale. The replication-wise mean values for each character were subsequently utilized for statistical analysis.

Combining ability (Verma et al., 2025) analysis revealed significant differences among lines and testers in respect of gca for number of branches per plant in both generations, whereas, for number of seeds per pod and harvest index in F1 generation and for number of pods per plant in F2 generation. The differences among the hybrids (Chaudhary et al., 2024) due to interaction between line+) tester in respect of sca were also found significant for all the characters except number of pods per cluster and number of seeds per pods  in F1 generation where is in F2s except for number of branches for plant, number of pods per cluster number of seeds per pod and harvest index.
       
The estimates of component of variance showed that additive gene action was predominant in the inheritance of number of clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, number of pods per plant number,  number of seeds per pod, test weight, grain yield per plant and harvest index, whereas non additive gene action played a major role for days to 50% flower and maturity, plant height, number of branches per plant and protein content in F1 generation. In F2 generation, estimates of additive gene actions were higher than non additive types for all the characters except plant height, harvest index and protein content which show prominence of dominance variance.
       
The study recommends using high-GCA parents in crossing programs and advancing promising crosses to develop transgressive segregants with improved yield and stability. Significant genotype × environment interactions underscore the need for multi-location trials to ensure the stability of selected genotypes (Mitache et al., 2024) across diverse growing conditions. This genetic analysis provides a foundation for lentil breeding programs, enabling the development of improved varieties with enhanced yield, adaptability and market-preferred traits, contributing to food security and agricultural sustainability.
       
The average degree of dominance is exhibited over dominance for plant height and protein content in both the generations. However,  the number of clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, test weight and grain yield per plant were shown partial dominance in both the generations. The degree of dominance reflected over dominance for days to  50% flower and maturity, number of branches per plant and  partial dominance for harvest index  F1 generation (Rout et al., 2025).
       
B77, IPL402, IPLS-09-01, Sehore-74-03 and K75 are the good general combiners for most of the traits. IPLS-09-01 can be utilised in hybridization programmes for the improvement of character days to 50% flowering. IPL81 can be utilised in hybridization programmes (Lal et al., 2021) for the improvement of character days to maturity. IPLS-09-01 can be utilised in hybridization programmes for the improvement of character plant height. B77 can be utilised in hybridization programmes for the improvement of character secondary branches per plant. Pant L7 can be utilised in hybridization prog for the improvement of character number of pods per plant. Pant 2016 can be utilised in hybridization programs for the improvement of character 100 seed weight. EC522160 can be utilised in hybridization programs for the improvement of character biological yield per plant whereas Pant L7 can be utilized in hybridization programs for the improvement of character harvest index.
       
Overall, the combining ability analysis revealed that among the eighteen parents evaluated, the lines IPLS-09-01, IPL81, B77 and Pant L7 emerged as superior general combiners for the majority of the traits. Because general combining ability (GCA) effects primarily reflect fixable additive gene action, these parents hold significant practical value for crop improvement and can be effectively utilized in future hybridization programs to select desirable segregants that combine vital yield-related traits in early generations, ultimately boosting seed yield potential. Among the specific crosses, Pant L7 × Sehore-74-03 was identified as a superior specific combiner for days to 50% flowering, harvest index, seed diameter, secondary branches per plant and 100-seed weight, while IPL 81 × K75 performed exceptionally well for days to 50% flowering, plant height, pods per plant, seed diameter, pods per cluster and seed yield per plant (Table 2). Additionally, Pant 2016 × DPL-58 proved desirable for days to maturity, days to 50% flowering, pods per cluster, biological yield per plant and 100-seed weight; Pant L117 × Sehore-74-03 exhibited strong specific performance for days to maturity, plant height and number of seeds per pod; and IPL 406 × Sehore-74-03 stood out for a broad range of traits including days to maturity, plant height, secondary branches per plant, pods per plant, 100-seed weight and seed yield per plant.
       
The cross combination B7×K75 and IPL-526×Sehorer -74-03 exhibited (Fig 1) positive significant sca effects for many of the trait thus these can be used in the recombinant breeding programme for developing of desirable segregants. The comparison of the top ranking hybrid combinations based on per se performance, sca effects and heterosis revealed that in general, the top ranking hybrids based on per se (mean) performance also figured among the best combinations on the basis of heterosis and sca effecs. However, their superiority in respect of sca is somewhat altered. Based on per se performance, sca effects and standard heterosis cross combination Pant L7×Sehore-74-03 best for days to flowering; IPL81×Sehore-74-03 best for days to maturity.

Lentil research is moving beyond just crop yield. Hereditary engineering improves the crop internally by enhancing nutritional profiles and biotic/abiotic stress resistance. Simultaneously, beneficial microbes enhance soil health and human wellness externally. Together, these dual approaches support sustainable agriculture and functional food innovation. These microbial cultures interact with human biology by influencing gene expression, while host hereditary factors in turn determine microbial effectiveness.

This investigation analyzed quantitative traits in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) using a Line × Tester design with 15 lines and 3 testers over two rabi seasons (2022-23 and 2023-24) in a randomized block design with three replications at Janta Vedic College, Baraut. The study revealed that both additive and non-additive genetic variances govern productivity traits, with over-dominance observed for plant height, protein content, days to 50% flowering, days to maturity and number of branches, while partial dominance was noted for grain yield, harvest index, clusters per plant, pods per cluster, pods per plant, seeds per pod and test weight. Phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) consistently exceeded genotypic coefficients (GCV), with grain yield and harvest index displaying the highest variability at both levels. Among the parents, IPLS-09-01, IPL81, B77, Pant L7, IPL402, Sehore-74-03 and K75 emerged as excellent general combiners driven by beneficial additive gene effects. Crosses exhibiting high specific combining ability (SCA) and superior heterosis for grain yield also showed significant improvement in yield-complementary traits like pods per plant, branches per plant, clusters per plant and test weight. Consequently, these high-performing parents and their crosses should be extensively utilized in hybridization programs using conventional breeding procedures, like the pedigree method, to successfully isolate desirable transgressive segregants in early generations.

The present study was greatly acknowledged for  Mrs Roshee Vaid an english scholar who involved herself actively in proof reading and editing the langauge portion of the manuscript.
 
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The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.