Koh lipe, located within tarutao national park domain in Southern Thailand, exemplifies complex interactions between conservation, indigenous rights and tourism development. The Urak Lawoi people have inhabited this island since 1897, predating protected area establishment in 1974, resulting in unique management arrangements administered by Koh Sarai sub-district organization rather than standard national park jurisdiction (Koh Sarai Sub-district Administrative Organization, 2010). The island attracts approximately 16,993,000 Thai baht worth of tourists annually (Satun Immigration Office, 2010). However, rapid tourism expansion has precipitated environmental degradation, occupational shifts and ecosystem deterioration reflecting broader challenges in balancing economic benefits with ecological sustainability (Nongnaphat, 2009).
       
Ecotourism offers sustainable alternatives by generating positive effects on local communities while minimizing negative environmental and cultural impacts (World Tourism Organization, 2002; Praptiwi et al., 2021). In marine destinations, implementing ecotourism principles becomes critical through integrating nature knowledge, promoting conservation values and facilitating community participation (Strongza et al., 2019; Blanton et al., 2024). Despite previous development efforts, including 1999 community group formation under Coastal Resources Institute guidance (Coastal Resources Institute, 2000), a critical gap persists in understanding how indigenous coastal communities navigate simultaneous pressures from protected area governance, rapid commercial tourism and cultural preservation imperatives. This research aimed to examine socio-economic characteristics and coastal resource management dynamics, investigate ecotourism activities and their relationship with resource management, identify factors affecting resource-based utilization and synthesize appropriate ecotourism management models for sustainable community development.

This study employed a pragmatist mixed-methods paradigm, incorporating qualitative and quantitative methodologies to triangulate findings and maximize construct validity (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2017). The study was conducted in Koh Lipe, Koh Sarai district, Satun province, Thailand. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) involved 15 key informants purposively selected based on elder status, community history knowledge and diverse occupational backgrounds; sample size was determined by information-saturation principles (Hennink et al., 2017). In-depth interviews covered 10 households representing the original Urak Lawoi population. Questionnaire surveys covered all 205 households from Moo 7 (Strongza et al., 2019), eliminating sampling error. Instrument validity was ensured through expert panel review (n=3) and reliability was assessed through a pilot test with 20 households. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
       
Qualitative data underwent content analysis using analytic induction. Quantitative analysis employed descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, percentages), Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis (Tranmer et al., 2020).
 

yi = β0 + β1xi1 + β2xi2 + … + βpxip + ∈

 
Where,
Yi= Resource-based utilization.
Xi= Ecotourism activity variables.
β0= The y-intercept.
βp= Slope coefficients.
∈= The error term.

Socio-economic characteristics
 
Data in Table 1 show that household heads had an average age of 38.6 years with predominantly low educational attainment (66.34% no formal education, 28.78% primary level). Most residents (78.54%) were island-born, with 91.22% holding land rights documentation, primarily possessory rights (60.43%). Main occupations included tour boat operation (41.46%), aquatic animal catching (35.20%) and agriculture (35.12%), reflecting tourism influence. Living challenges included drinking water shortage (97.25%), transportation inconvenience (95.12%) and electricity shortage (82.44%), yet 93.17% expressed no relocation desire, indicating strong community attachment. While empowering coastal communities through education and integrated support programs is vital for socio-economic improvement (Gerlie et al., 2025), technical interventions are equally necessary. In this regard, Sabareshwari and Ramya (2018) note that a comprehensive characterization of soil constraints is essential for developing effective management strategies to enhance agricultural productivity.


 
Economic characteristics
 
Data in Table 2 showed minimal land holding (0.08 square wah/household) with high land prices (705,300 Baht/ha). Mean annual income was 188,125 Baht with expenditure of 123,430 Baht. Debt affected 72.20% of households. Income sufficiency was reported as sufficient (44.88%), with surplus (27.32%), or insufficient (27.80%), aligning with coastal community economic patterns where tourism creates income opportunities while increasing living costs (Hall, 2001).


 
Resource utilization and coastal management dynamics
 
Historical analysis revealed four distinct periods: Urak Lawoi Settlement (1897-1948) based on abundant coastal and forest resources; Transformation period (1949-1974) with commercial emergence; Government Expansion (1974-1997) with intensified resource use and Tourism Industry Expansion (1998-2018) with accelerated luxury development. Consistent with Quang et al., (2023), this study identifies technological advancement as the most effective long-term strategy for sustainable spatial planning and policy formulation.
 
Current resource utilization patterns
 
Data in Table 3 showed differential pressure across resources. Coastal areas and marine resources (96.59%) were predominantly used for catching marine animals, while coral reefs (90.24%) functioned as natural barriers, food chain support and breeding areas (Sakanan, 1998). Overall resource-based utilization averaged 49.60%. The near-total dependency on coastal areas alongside critically low freshwater (22.44%) and underground water access (10.24%) signals a structural sustainability risk that resource management plans should address to avoid over-dependence on vulnerable marine-facing ecosystems (Orams, 1999).


 
Ecotourism activities and infrastructure
 
Data in Table 4 show that snorkeling emerged as the most popular activity (73.11%), followed by drinking activities (61.40%) and scuba diving (51.40%), averaging 41.90% participation. However, ecotourism infrastructure remained limited at 10.97% average (Table 5). Labor utilization in Table 6 and Fig 1 showed local workers dominated (54.24%), followed by foreign (26.25%) and mainland workers (19.26%). The fourfold disparity between activity participation and infrastructure availability implies ecotourism demand greatly outpaces supply, placing strain on the natural resource base while the dominance of local workers indicates meaningful economic benefit circulation within the community (Praptiwi et al., 2021).








 
Management factors
 
Three primary factor categories emerged with consistently high community opinion levels (Table 7). Human factors (42.90%, opinion level 3.78) showed that long-term resource relationships fostered restoration consciousness, with restoration awareness (3.88) and benefit expectations (3.86). Group and community factors (39.00%, opinion level 3.56) demonstrated participatory decision-making capacity, with decision-making opportunities (3.70) and network formation (3.45). Organizational factors (36.10%, opinion level 3.70) showed NGO advocacy (3.80) and government support (3.79). Despite organizational factors yielding the lowest participation percentage, individual items scored highest, suggesting structural barriers to formal engagement rather than disinterest, consistent with Bramwell and Lane (2011) and Pomeroy and Berkes (1997).


 
Resource utilization effects
 
Data in Table 8 show that resource transformation effects averaged 3.81 (much level). Most significant effects included decreased coastal marine life from tourism (4.05), land loss through investor sales (4.02) and decreased sea cucumbers (3.98). Positive effects included educational opportunities for children (3.93), improved facilities (3.84) and business diversification (3.74), reflecting ecotourism’s potential for balancing conservation and development (Strongza and Gordillo, 2008).



Correlation and regression analysis
 
Correlation analysis identified significant positive relationships between ecotourism activities and resource utilization (Table 9): nightlife (r=0.885, p<0.01), fishing (r=0.759, p<0.01), scuba diving (r=0.498, p<0.05), vacation rental (r=0.479, p<0.05) and snorkeling (r=0.347, p<0.05). Multiple linear regression produced: Y = 0.521 + 0.335X₁ + 0.261X₂ + 0.439X₃ + 0.505X₄ + 0.278X₅ + 0.608X₆ + 0.112X₇  + 0.875X₈ + 0.455X₉ + 0.188X₁₀ (R²=0.431, R² adjusted= 0.364, F-significant =0.912, Durbin-Watson=1.852). The strong nightlife correlation challenges traditional frameworks that emphasize only nature-based activities as primary stressors (Fennell, 2008), highlighting the need for comprehensive visitor behavior management extending to evening activities.


 
Synthesized ecotourism management models
 
Two complementary models were developed.
Model 1 (Fig 2): Eco-cultural tourism management emphasizes Urak Lawoi cultural uniqueness through boat-floating festival learning (Traditional biannual ceremony), historical tourism accessing archaeological sites with local guides and sea gypsy lifestyle tourism through village walkways.



Model 2 (Fig 3): Nature ecotourism focuses on marine ecological tourism utilizing unique natural resources and low-tide coral observation and astronomical tourism observing solar eclipses, meteor showers and lunar eclipses. Both models incorporate core activities, supporting systems and driving factors (Wearing and Neil, 2009; Ross and Wall, 1999; Boo, 1990).

This research provides a comprehensive assessment of coastal resource management dynamics in koh lipe community across four historical periods from initial settlement (1897) through contemporary tourism expansion. Current resource utilization averages 49.60%, with highest pressure on coastal areas (96.59%) and coral reefs (90.24%). Three management factors-human (42.90%), group and community (39.00%) and organizational (36.10%)-emerged with consistently high opinion levels (3.56-3.78). Nightlife and fishing exert the greatest pressure on resource utilization. Two complementary ecotourism management models were synthesized: eco-cultural tourism emphasizing cultural heritage and traditions and nature ecotourism focusing on marine ecology and astronomical phenomena. Implementation of these models offers significant potential for conflict reduction, income generation and long-term sustainability. Future research should address longitudinal assessment of management strategies, economic valuation of ecosystem services, climate change adaptation and tourist perspectives on conservation support willingness.

The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to the Office of the Higher Education Commission and the Graduate School of Prince of Songkla University for providing financial support.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.