India occupies 4
th position among world’s major oilseed economies. Of the nine oilseed crops grown in India, minor oilseeds (castor, sunflower, niger, safflower and linseed) accounted for 4.6%-6.0% and 4.8%-6.2% of the total acreage and production of oilseeds during 2019-20 to 2024-25 (
Anonymous, 2026a). Globally, India rank first in castor, safflower and niger and 4
th in linseed production. They are predominantly grown under rainfed agro-ecosystem with only 35%-45% (castor); 2.0%-5.0% (niger), 5.0%-10.0% (safflower) and 20.0%-30.0% (linseed) irrigated acreage, respectively (https://www.pib.gov.in, visited on June 5, 2026). Castor and linseed are classified as non-edible oilseeds. High yielding varieties coupled with quality seed play an important role in enhancing crop production. Development of varieties and their induction in seed chain is a continuous process to provide quality seed to the stakeholders. In earlier studies (
Chauhan et al., 2021a, b) trends in seed requirement and availability, seed and varietal replacement of minor oilseeds during 2014-15 to 2020-21 were discussed. The present paper reviews growth of minor oilseeds during the last six decades, varietal status and diversity in seed production chain during 2020-21 to 2024-25 and assesses the seed requirement of minor oilseeds for the next five years.
Minor oilseeds in India
Growth
To assess growth during different decades of period of analysis (1966-67/1970-71 to 2024-25), the Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) was estimated using RRI function in MS-excel and further as described by
Grimm (2023). Castor, except the two consecutive decades (1990-91 to 1999-2000 (-0.38%) and 2000-01 to 2009-10 (-3.71%) had negative CAGR for acreage and it was either stagnant or positive in rest of the decades and the highest (3.42%) being during 1980-81-1989-90. Castor production and yield showed positive CAGR except for yield (-0.04%) during the first five years of the current decade (Table 1). Overall, during 1966-67 to 2024-25 castor recorded positive CAGR for acreage (1.51%), production (4.84%) and seed yield (3.29%) and during the first five years of the current decade, the corresponding CAGR was 1.74%, 1.64% and -0.04%.
Castor acreage enhanced from 1966-67 until 2000-01 by 170.0%and declined thereafter by 18.5% and 17.6%, respectively, during 2010-11 and 2020-21 (Fig 1). However, castor production and yield registered an increase until 2020-21 to 1.65 m t and 1856 kg/ha with an overall enhancement of 15.0 and 6.8 fold as compared to that of 1966-67. Further, in the first five years of the current decade, the production reached 1.98 m t (2022-23) and seed yield to 1948 kg/ha (2021-22) recording an increase of 20.0% and 4.9%., respectively, over 2020-21 (Fig 1). Nevertheless, the highest ever acreage (1.47 m ha), production (2.30 m t) and yield (1948 kg/ha) were recorded 2011-12, 2011-12 and 2021-22, registering an enhancement of 267.5%, 1990.9% and 610.9%, respectively, over that of 1966-67 from 0.40 m ha, 0.11 m t and 274 kg/ha.
The CAGR was negative for acreage, production and yield of sunflower during 1970-71 to 79-80 (Table 1) followed by very high growth during 1980-81 to 1989-90 for acreage (25.79%) and production (24.57%) but low negative (-0.48%) for seed yield. Since this decade, the CAGR for both acreage and production declined until the first five years of the present decade except 2000-01 to 2009-10 decade (Table 1). Sunflower seed yield registered positive CAGR during 2010-11 to 2019-20 (2.88%) and 2020-21 to 2024-25 (3.78%). The CAGR was 0.84%, 2.02% and 1.13%, respectively, for acreage, production and seed yield during 1970-71 to 2024-25.
The highest acreage (1.63 m ha) and production (0.87 m ha) for sunflower were observed during 1990-91 showing enhancement of 1258.3% and 987.5% over that of 1970-71 (Fig 2). But, both declined, thereafter, appreciably by 85.9% (0.23 m ha) and 73.6% (0.23 m t) until 2020-21. However, yield enhancement was 89.0% during 2020-21 over that of 1990-91. In the current decade, acreage was reduced by 17.4% but production and yield were higher by 4.3% and 20.1% during 2024-25 over that of 2020-21. Sunflower registered an all time high area (2.67 m ha), production (1.46 m t) and yield (1214 kg/ha) during 1993-94, 2007-08 and 2024-25, respectively, with corresponding enhancement of 22.3, 18.3 and 1.86 folds as compared to 0.12 m ha, 0.08 m t and 653 kg/ha during 1970-71 (
Anonymous, 2026a). The sunflower irrigated area reached 58.9% (2023-24) from 19.6% during 1992-93 (
Anonymous, 2019).
Niger had positive CAGR for acreage, production and yield during 1966-67 to 1969-70 and 1980-81 to 1989-90 only (Table 1). Since the decade 1990-91 to 1999-2000, niger registered negative CAGR the highest being during 2010-11 to 2019-20, -9.55% for acreage and -9.23% for production. The highest CAGR for yield (5.16%) was during 1966-67 to 1969-70 declined during 1970-71 to 1979-80 (-3.59%) and increased to 2.09% during 1980-81 to 1989-90 and further declined thereafter until 2020-21 to 2024-25. The CAGR during the first five years of the current decade was -5.50%, -0.97% and 4.44% for acreage, production and yield, respectively. Overall, during the last six decades, the CAGR was negative for acreage and production but positive for seed yield (Table 1).
Niger acreage was higher by 3.4%, 26.6% and 29.2%, respectively, during 1970-71, 1980-81 and 1990-91 and lower thereafter until 2020-21 by 71.7% as compared to that of 1966-67. Niger production also followed the similar trend and increased over that of 1966-67 by 62.0%-135.4% until 1990-91 and since then decreased consistently until 2020-21 by 77.4% (Fig 3). Niger seed yield (317 kg/ha) registered an enhancement of 91.0% during 2020-21 over that of 1966-67. Nevertheless, niger acreage (6.39 lakh ha), production (1.92 lakh t) and yield (394 kg/ha) was highest during 1987-88, 1993-94 and 2024-25, respectively, with overall increase of 35.1%, 143.0% and 137.3% over that of 1966-67.
The CAGR for safflower acreage (2.23%) and production (6.12%) was highest during 1970-71 to 1979-80, declined thereafter and was high and negative for both acreage (-14.32%) and production (-11.54%) during 2010-11 to 2019-20 (Table 2). However, seed yield recorded positive CAGR from 1966-67 to 69-70 (12.86%) to 2020-21 to 2024-25 (3.71%). During 1966-67 to 2024-25, the CAGR was negative for acreage (-3.35%), production (-0.87%) and positive for seed yield (2.80%).
The highest yield (640 kg/ha) of safflower was achieved during 2020-21, showing an enhancement of 144.3% compared to the yield in 1970-71 (Fig 4). There was a substantial increase in the safflower acreage during 1990-91 (8.23 lakh ha) which was higher by 40.0% than that of 1970-71. Thereafter, the acreage declined and reached 0.56 lakh ha (2020-21), a decrease of 93.2% (Fig 4). The highest ever increase of 120.5%, 625.0% and 458.3% for safflower acreage, production and yield was observed during 1987-88 (10.52 lakh ha), 1993-94 (5.22 lakh t) and 2019-20 (843 kg/ha) as compared to that of 1966-67.
Linseed had high growth of acreage during 1966-67 to 69-70 (4.79%) and decelerated thereafter until 2010-11 to 2019-20 (-6.67%) and CAGR was low but positive (0.70%) during 2020-21 to 2024-25. During the last six decade, the acreage reduced at CAGR of -3.63% (Table 2). The production of linseed had highest deceleration during 1970-71 to 1979-80 (-5.51%) and overall negative CAGR (-1.43%) from 1966-67 to 2024-25. The CAGR was positive, the highest being 10.56% during 1966-67 to 69-70 for seed yield and remained positive until 2024-25 (2.30%) except 1970-71 to 79-80 (-3.95%).
There was consistent increase in linseed acreage from 14.95 lakh ha during 1966-67 by 26.9% and 11.9% during 1970-71 and 1980-81, respectively and subsequently decrease of 26.5%, 61.2%, 76.0% and 88.3% in different decades, respectively, until 2020-21 (Fig 5). Linseed production was highest during 1970-71 (4.74 lakh t) showing an enhancement of 82.3% over that of 1966-67. Since 1970-71, linseed production consistently declined during the subsequent decades and reached the lowest (1.11 lakh t) during 2020-21 with a reduction of 76.6% (Fig 5). Linseed yield increased from 174 kg/ha during 1966-67 by 266.1% to 637 kg/ha during 2020-21. During the last 55 years, linseed exhibited highest acreage (21.19 lakh ha), production (5.98 lakh t) and yield (698 kg/ha) during 1975-76, 1975-76 and 2022-23, respectively, with corresponding increase of 41.7%, 130.0% and 301.1% over that of 1966-67.
Recent trend in production
Share of castor during 2019-20 to 2024-25 in production and acreage of oilseeds was 4.2%-5.5% and 2.9%-3.4%, respectively. The acreage of castor reduced from 1.05 m ha during 2019-20 to 0.97 m ha during 2024-25 with highest reduction of 21.0% (0.83 m ha) during 2021-22 (
Anonymous, 2026a). Production declined by 10.3%; 12.0% and 2.7%, respectively, during 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2024-25 and enhanced by 7.6% and 6.5% during 2022-23 and 2023-24, respectively, over that of 2019-20 (1.84 m t). Seed yield recorded an increase ranging from 5.2% to 10.6% during 2020-21 to 2024-25 as compared to 1761kg/ha in 2019-20. Gujarat had the highest acreage (64.9%) and production (76.2%) of castor in India during 2024-25. Other states with appreciable castor acreage were Rajasthan (26.4%) and Andhra Pradesh (5.3%) with corresponding contribution of 21.9% and 1.1% to production during 2024-25 (
Anonymous, 2026b). These three states together accounted for 96.7% and 99.2% of the total castor acreage and production in India. Average seed yield was 2105 kg/ha, 1535kg/ha and 510 kg/ha, respectively, in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh against national average yield (1852 kg/ha).
Sunflower contributed 0.50%-1-19% and 0.43%-0.87% to oilseeds acreage and production, respectively, during 2019-20 to 2024-25. The acreage rose to 0.36 m ha (2022-23) from 0.23 m ha (2019-20), recording an enhancement of 56.5% that declined by 34.8% and attained the lowest (0.15 m ha) acreage during 2023-24 (
Anonymous, 2026a). Production reached highest (0.36 m t) showing an increase of 71.4% during 2022-23 and declined thereafter until 2024-25. Except 2021-22 when seed yield was lower by 0.9% (923 kg/ha) than that of 2019-20 (931 kg/ha), it recorded the highest increase of 30.4% (1214 kg/ha) during 2024-25. The top three major sunflower growing states were Karnataka, Haryana and Odisha having a share of 52.6%, 12.9% and 11.3%, respectively; in the total national acreage and their corresponding contribution to production was 44.5%, 22.5% and 11.4% during 2024-25. Haryana had the highest yield (2158 kg/ha) followed by Odisha (1229 kg/ha) and Karnataka (1032 kg/ha). Many states such as Punjab (1930 kg/ha), Gujarat (1644 kg/ha) and Telangana (1632 kg/ha) had higher yield during 2024-25 as compared to all India average seed yield (1214 kg/ha) but had very low acreage (
Anonymous, 2026b).
Of the total oilseeds acreage and production, niger accounted for 0.27%-0.50% and 0.07%-0.11%, respectively, during 2019-20 to 2024-25. Niger acreage reduced considerably by 1.5%-39.0% from 1.36 lakh ha (2019-20) to 0.83 lakh ha (2023-24) and 1.01 lakh ha during 2024-25 (
Anonymous 2026a). Except 2020-21 when its production registered 2.4% increase, in rest of the years, it decreased by 2.5%-34.1% from 0.41 lakh ha (2019-20) to 0.27 lakh ha (2023-24). Nevertheless, seed yield recorded an enhancement of 4.6%-30.0% from 303 kg/ha (2019-20) to 394 kg/ha (2024-25). Odisha (50.5%), Chhatisgarh (25.7%) and Madhya Pradesh (10.9%) were the prominent niger growing states during 2024-25 and shared 87.1% of the total acreage and 85.0% of the production in India with their corresponding contribution of 65.0%, 12.5% and 7.5%, respectively, during 2024-25 (
Anonymous, 2026b). Odisha had higher seed yield (511 kg/ha) as compared to 394 kg/ha national average seed/yield while Chhatisgarh (195 kg/ha) and Madhya Pradesh (289 kg/ha) had lower yield.
Safflower had low share of 0.19%-0.36% in total oilseeds acreage during 2019-20 to 2024-25. Its contribution to production during the corresponding period ranged between 0.10% (2020-21) and 0.22% (2022-23). Safflower acreage showed an enhancement from 0.52 lakh ha (2019-20) to 0.64 lakh ha (2024-25) but peaked to 1.09 lakh ha (2022-23), an increase of 7.7%-109.2% during 2020-21 to 2024-25. Safflower production was higher by 13.6%-104.5% during 2021-22, 2022-23 and 2023-24 over that of 2019-20 (0.44 lakh t) but decreased by 18.2% and 2.3% during 2020-21 and 2024-25, respectively. But, seed yield declined during 2020-21 to 2024-25 by 2.0% (2022-23)-24.1% (2020-21) as compared to 843 kg/ha during 2019-20. Safflower is predominantly grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana and accounted for 95.3% and 93.2% of national acreage and production, respectively, during 2024-25 (
Anonymous, 2026b). Maharashtra alone contributed 65.6% to safflower acreage and 60.5% to production but seed yield was higher in Karnatka (732 kg/ha) against 672 kg/ha of national average yield. Telangana had higher seed yield of 1316 kg/ha but had very low acreage of 0.02 lakh ha (
Anonymous, 2026b).
Contribution of linseed to total oilseed acreage and production in India was 0.56%-0.79% and 0.26%-0.40%, respectively, during 2019-20 to 2024-25. Acreage ranged between 1.75 lakh ha (2020-21, 2023-24)-2.39 lakh ha (2022-23) registering a decline of 2.8% during 2021-21 and 2023-24 and enhancement of 32.8% during 2022-23 over that of 2019-20 (1.80 lakh ha), respectively. Production of linseed also declined as compared to 2019-20 (1.21 lakh t) by 6.6%-8.3% during 2020-21, 2023-24 and 2024-25 (
Anonymous, 2026a). Similarly, yield/ha was reduced by 0.7% to 5.7% during 2020-21 to 2024-25 except 2022-23 when it registered an increase of 4.0% over that of 2019-20 (671 kg/ha). Madhya Pradesh (28.4%),Uttar Pradesh (24.9%) and Jharkhand (20.7%) accounted for 74.0% of the acreage and 71.5% of production with corresponding contribution of 29.5%, 23.2% and 18.8%, respectively, during 2024-25.Of these, only Madhya Pradesh (696 kg/ha) had higher seed yield as compared to 666 kg/ha national average (
Anonymous, 2026b).
Seed production chain
Variety releases and notification system, legal frame-work to regulate quality seed production and seed delivery system in the country have been discussed in earlier publications (
Chauhan et al., 2016; 2024; 2025).
Recent scenario of varietal development
During the current decade (2020-25), 82 varieties of castor, sunflower, niger, safflower and linseed have been released and notified sharing 29.1% of total varieties of oilseeds (282). Linseed (37.8%), safflower (29.3%) and sunflower (15.9%) were the major contributors to the total released varieties (Table 3) of these five crops. These varieties are the building blocks for sustaining dynamic seed production chain.
Varietal diversity in seed chain
There was no consistency in the number of varieties inducted in the seed chain, varying from 24 to 31. Number of varieties in the seed chain was reduced in comparison to that of 2019-20 by 16.1% (2020-21, 2021-22 and 2023-24) and 22.6% during 2022-23 but again attained the level of 2019-20 (Table 4).
Varietal replacement
Varieties were classified as recently released (1-5 years); old (6-10 years), older (11-15) and oldest (> 15 years) prior to the initiation of seed chain, number of varieties/lakh ha of crop acreage and their contribution to the total breeder seed indent were assessed. Varietal replacement rate was computed as ratio of recently released varieties in the seed chain to total varieties released during the period and expressed as percentage. Leading varieties were listed on the basis of occurrence among the top 10 varieties, developed during the 10 years preceding the seed chain of 2024-25 and appeared at least for two seasons and/or indented during 2023-24 or 2024-25. Their notification year and frequency of occurrence in the seed chain were‘ also presented.
Less number of varieties/hybrids (2-9) was accompanied by low variety replacement rate varying from 15.4%-50.0% in the seed chain of castor was observed during 2019-20 to 2024-25. However, a good number of varieties were developed prior to 5 and 10 years of the seed chain commencement (Table 5). Recently released varieties had large share (51.2%-95.5%) in the seed indent except during 2019-20 and 2024-25, the highest being 100.0% from two varieties during 2021-22 (Table 5). Two castor hybrids Rajasthan Hybrid Castor 2/MHC 2 and Tilhan Tech CH 6 released during 2024 contributed 9.2% to the breeder seed indent during 2024-25. However, varieties developed beyond 15 years of the seed chain initiation had appreciable contribution to breeder seed indent during 2019-20 (27.2%), 2023-24 (26.6%) and 2024-25 (27.0%). Prominent varieties/hybrids in the seed chain were ICH 5 (4.5%; 2021;1/6), GCH 10 (29.4%-37.3%;2020;3/6), ICH 66 (1.2%-50.0%;2019;5/6), Castor 24 (4.5%;2019;1/6), YRCH 2 (4.5%;2019;1/6), GCH 8 (18.2%-36.6;2018;4/6) and GCH 9 (5.9%-50.0%;2018;5/6). Some of the oldest varieties like GCH 7 (23.5%-27.3%;2007;3/6) and GCH 4 (2.4%; 1988; 2/6) were among the predominant hybrids during the period of analysis.
Enhancement in sunflower varieties/hybrids per lakhha (4.44-16.0) has been observed since 2022-23 suggesting rapid varietal induction as compared to 3.91, 3.04 and 2.96 during 2019-20, 2020-21 and 2021-22, respectively (Table 5). Share of recently released varieties in the breeder seed indent exhibited a range of 6.4% from two varieties/hybrids (2021-22) to 55.2% from four varieties/hybrids during 2022-23. Further, one variety released during 2020 also contributed 1.9% to the breeder seed indent during 20219-20. In sunflower, five hybrids/varieties (KBSH 88, KBSH 90, PDKV Suraj, Tilhen Tech SUNH 2 and Tilhen Tech SUNH 3 released during 2024 and 2025 contributed 43.7% to the breeder seed indent during 2024-25. Nevertheless four old varieties had the largest contribution (88.5%) to the seed indent during 2021-22 (Table 5). Further, oldest varieties also had substantial share of 35.8% and 45.8%, respectively, in the breeder seed indent during 2022-23 and 2023-24 and unexpectedly surged to 73.5% could be due to indent for some oldest varieties during 2020-21 and least (4.2%) during 2021-22 (Table 5). Varietal induction of the recently released varieties in the seed chain did not follow consistent trend, the lowest (20.0%) and highest (89.0%) was during 2021-22 and 2023-24, respectively and reduced to 50.0% during 2024-25. Contribution of 10 top leading varieties/hybrids was 83.6%-100.0% to the seed indent and share of those released prior to 5 years of the seed chain was 31.4% (2023-24)-94.0% (2021-22) and promising varieties/hybrids were RSFH 700 (2.2%;2023;1/6), KBSH 85 (8.6%-40.5%;2022;2/6), Tilhen Tech. Sunh1 (8.6%-12.9%;2021;3/6), KBSH 78 (2.0%-27.6%;2020;5/6); LSFH 171 (3.0%-39.8%;2018;5/6), PDKVH 952 (0.9%-10.0%;2017;3/6), Kaveri Champ (8.6%;2017;1/6) and RSFH 1887 (2.0%-86.8%;2016;4/6). Several oldest hybrids of sunflower such as KBSH53 (2009), KBSH41 (2005) and KBSH44 (2003) were also frequently occurred in the seed chain and KBSH 1 was the oldest hybrid of sunflower released during 1992 and accounted for 12.7% of the breeder seed indent during 2023-24.
There were only 8-11 niger varieties in the seed chain during the first five years of the present decade. Of these, five and 10 years old varieties contributed 8.0 % (2022-23) to 63.9% (2021-22) and 0.25% (2022-23) to 66.4% (2024-25), respectively, to the share of top 10 varieties to the seed indent. The major contributors to the breeder seed indent were old varieties of niger having share of 49.6% from 3 varieties (2023-24) to 66.4 % from 3 varieties (2024-25). The highest contribution of recently released varieties was 45.5% from three varieties during 2023-24 (Table 5). One variety released during 2019 also entered the seed chain during 2019-20 with a contribution of 1.1% to the breeder seed indent. Three older varieties contributed 59.1% to the seed indent during 2020-21 (Table 5). The oldest varieties also contributed appreciably 32.7%, 26.7% and 24.3% to the breeder seed indent during 2020-21, 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively, declined to 2.2% and 0.0%, respectively, during 2023-24 and 2024-25 (Table 5). Some of the promising varieties among the top 10 having the largest contribution were JNS 30 (1.9%-56.0%;2016;6/6), JNS 2016-1413(1.7%-44.9%;2021;1/6), JNS 2016-1115 (0.2%-12.9%;2021;1/6), JNS 28 (1.1%-9.5%;2017;6/6), GNING 3 (0.4%-3.3%;2017;3/6), JNS 2015-9 (5.2%;2021;1/6), JNS 521 (4.3%;2021;1/6), Birsa Niger 4 (0.2%;2021;1/6) and PCUS 18-1/Unnat Rama (0.4%;2022;1/6). Oldest varieties like JNS 9 (2006), JNC 1 (2006), Birsa Niger 2/BNS 9 (2005), Birsa Niger 3/BNS 11 (2010) and Utkal Niger 150/ONS 150 (2011) also frequently occupied premier position among the top 10 varieties. Birsa Niger 1/BNS 10/Pooja was also among the leading varieties released during 1996 shared 0.9% to 44.6% of the breeder seed indent during 2019-20 to 2023-24.
In safflower, varietal induction in the seed chain was high as 66.7%-100.0% of the varieties developed up to five years before the commencement of seed chain were in the seed chain with higher share (73.3%-89.3%) during 2020-21 to 2024-25 than that of 2019-20 (67.1%). Nine recently released varieties contributed the highest during 2023-24 followed by 86.3% from eight varieties during 2021-22 (Table 5). Further, contribution of older varieties was reduced considerably from 49.7% during 2019-20 to 2.7% during 2024-25 (Table 5). There was appreciable enhancement in number of varieties/lakh ha during 2024-25 (33.3) from 19.6 during 2019-20. The contribution of recently released and old varieties preceding the seed chain was 46.3%-88.3% and 0.0%-15.6%, respectively (Table 5) to the total contribution of leading top 10 varieties to the breeder seed indent (86.8%-100.0%). One variety each released during 2020 and 2024 entered seed chain of 2019-20 and 2024-25, respectively, with corresponding contribution of 13.2% and 5.2%. Leading recently released varieties/hybrids in the seed chain were CG Kusum 2 (5.2%;2024;1/6); Prabhani Suvarna 12(7.2%;2023;1/6); IGKV Kusum/RSS 2016-03 (14.8%-24.1%;2021;3/6), Phule Kiran/SSF 16-02 (5.8%; 2021;1/6); Annigeri 2020 (6.3%;2021;1/6); DSA F 1 (2.6%;2021;1/6), ISF 1/Pride (9.6%-14.8%;2020;4/6), SSF 13-71 (1.3%;2020;1/6); CG Kusum 1/RSS 2012-11 (5.1%-9.6%;2020;4/6); ISF 764 (13.4%-33.2%;2020;5/6) and ISF 12-40 (2.8%-10.6%;2019;4/6). However, A 300 and Annigere 1 released during 1978 were the oldest varieties indented during 2021-22 and 2022-23, respectively.
The number of varieties in the seed chain of linseed varied from 24 to 31 during 2019-20 to 2024-25 and varieties /lakh ha decreased from 17.22 (2019-20) to 14.86 (2023-24) but rose to the highest, 17.42, during 2024-25. Contribution of recently varieties has been consistently higher than of 2019-20 (51.6% from 21 varieties) varying 62.7% from 14 varieties (2021-22) to 66.7% from 16 varieties (2020-21). But, varietal replacement rate during 2024-25 was highest (84.1%) as of the 44 varieties released 10 years before the initiation of seed chain, 37 were inducted in the seed chain during 2024-25, contributing 97.9% to the seed indent. Contribution of older varieties declined from 19.8% in 2019-20 to 0.9% in 2024-25 (Table 5 ).The contribution of recently and old varieties among the leading 10 high contributing varieties to the seed indent varied from 26.3% (2024-25) to 75.5% (2021-22) and 10.6% (2021-22) to 51.4% (2024-25), respectively. Promising recently released varieties among the top 10 having the largest contribution were Jawahar Linseed Sagar 122 (8.1%; 2023;1/6); Sabour Tisi 4/Sabour 101 (3.4%;2023;1/6); Sabour Tisi 2/Sabour 101 (5.0%-7.8%;2021;2/6); Kota Alsi 6 / RL13165 (3.6%;2021;/6) and RLC 153/Utera Alsi 2 (5.9%-6.8%;2019;3/6). Several old varieties, JLS 95 (3.9%-12.0%;2018;4/6), Sabour Tisi 1/BAUP 101 (3.2%-15.8%;2018;4/6), JLS 66 (4.2%-10.9%;2018;5/6), RLC 148/Varsha Alsi (5.6%-10.4%;2018;5/6), Chhatisgarh Alsi 1/RLC 133 (4.9%-10.0%;2016;6/6), RLC 143/Utera Alsi (4.3%-13.3%;2016;6/6), JLS 79 (6.3%-10.2%;2016;5/6) JLS 79 (6.3%-10.2%;2016;5/6) and Kota Barani Alsi 4/RL 10193 (4.4%-6.1%;2015;3/6), also appeared in top 10 leading varieties in the seed chain frequently. Indira Alsi 32 released during 2005 was the oldest variety contributing 6.9% to the breeder seed indent during 2019-20. The discrepancy in the number of recently released varieties prior to five years of the seed chain and varieties in the seed chain of safflower (2020-21 and linseed(2019-20) in previous studies (
Chauhan et al., 2021a,b) was due the fact that in previous studies varieties were counted till the commencement of the seed chain while in present study varieties were counted prior to the seed chain initiation,
viz., up to 2018-19 instead of 2019-20 and 2019-20 instead of 2020-21.
Breeder seed
The pattern of centrally released varieties indented with Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, for breeder seed production was analyzed. Breeder seed production for castor was either
at par with indent or very high during 2020-21 (165.5%). But, indent was very low ranging from 1-2 q until 2023-24 and surged to 23 q during 2024-25 with an increase of 52.2% in breeder seed production (Table 6). Indent for sunflower breeder seed was low (1-5 q) until 2023-24 and increased to 49 q during 2024-25. Sunflower breeder seed production was higher than indents by 520.0%-4400.0% during 2019-20 to 2023-24 but during 2024-25 it was reduced by 30.6%. Breeder seed indent for niger varied from 7 q (2022-23) to 17 q during 2024-25 (Table 6). Its production was lower than indent by 14.3%, 23.1% and 11.8% during 2019-20, 2020-21 and 2024-25, respectively, while; higher by 44.4%,57.1% and 50.0%, respectively, during 2021-22, 2022-23 and 2023-24 (Table 6).
Breeder seed indent for safflower ranged between 14q and 20q during 2019-20 to 2024-25. Several fold increase in breeder seed production was observed for safflower (78.9%-1215.0%). Indent for linseed breeder seed has increased consistently over that of 2019-20 by 22.2% (2020-21)-72.2% (2024-25). Production of breeder seed of linseed (129-301 q) was invariably higher than indents (72-124q) during 2019-20 to 2024-25 and higher seed availability [(Production-Indent/Indent)× 100] to the extent of 205.5% was recorded during 2019-20 and varied from 46.3% to 186.3% during 2020-21 to 2024-25.
Varietal mismatches
Varietal mismatches
i.e. deficit in breeder seed production
vis-a-vis indent for some varieties were observed by analyzing variety-wise indent and production. Nevertheless, breeder seed production for various minor oilseeds was consistently higher than the indents during 2020-21 to 2024-25. Varietal mismatches and their contribution to breeder seed indent was the highest for niger, sunflower and castor during 2024-25. Highest varietal mismatches for safflower and linseed were observed during 2020-21 but with low share in breeder seed indent (Table 7). However, lower varietal mismatches during 2024-25 (5.9%) were accompanied by high share in breeder seed indent for safflower. Similarly, a low varietal mismatch (25.0%) than that of 2020-21 with high contribution to breeder seed indent was observed for linseed during 2019-20 to 2024-25 (Table 7). There was no varietal mismatch for castor during 2019-20 to 2023-24.
Foundation seed
Foundation seed is produced from breeder seed conversion. The foundation seed for castor, sunflower, niger, safflower and linseed shared only 0.60%-0.93% and 0.35-1.15% of the total foundation seed requirement and availability for oilseeds during 2019-20 to 2025-26. Foundation seed availability was either
at par or higher than the requirement during 2020-21 to 2025-26 for all minor oilseed crops except 25.0% reduction in sunflower seed during 2025-26 (Table 8). In comparison to 2019-20 the foundation seed requirement for castor declined by 6.1% (2020-21)-40.9% (2025-26), sunflower by 16.6% (2025-26)-66.7% (2022-23) except 2021-22 when an increase of 125.0% was recorded and niger by 28.6% (2024-25)-38.1% (2022-23). Safflower and linseed registered enhancement in foundation seed requirement by 4.0% (2021-22)-112.0% (2023-24) except 2020-21 when it was lower by 8.0% and 23.9% (2020-21)-297.8% (2022-23), respectively, over that of 2019-20 (Table 8). Foundation seed availability for these crops also followed, in general, similar trend as that of requirement during 2020-21 to 2024-25.
Foundation seed availability was always higher than the requirement during 2019-20 to 2025-26 by 4.7%-25.5% for castor; 8.9%-100.0% for sunflower except 2025-26 when a reduction of 25.0% was observed and 13.3%-81.0% for niger except 2020-21 when both were
at par. Foundation seed availability was higher than requirement for safflower and linseed by 3.5%-58.6% and 18.8%-882.6%, respectively, during 2019-20 to 2025-26 (Table 8).
Certified/quality seed
Conversion of foundation seed results in to certified class of seed. No separate data for certified seed was available. Analysis of data of certified/quality seed requirement and availability revealed that castor, sunflower, niger, safflower and linseed contributed only 1.9%-2.8% and 1.2%-3.7% to the total certified/quality seed requirement and availability, respectively, for oilseeds. Requirement of certified/quality seed for minor oilseeds during 2020-21 to 2025-26 increased over 2019-20 for castor (9.1%-36.4%); sunflower (17.6%-94.1%) except during 2023-24 when it was lower by 5.9%. Requirement of niger for certified/quality seed increased by 33.3% and 50.0% during 2019-20 and 2023-24 and
at par during rest of the years (Table 9).
However, safflower seed requirement was reduced during 2020-21 to 2025-26 by 14.3%-57.1% in comparison to that of 2019-20 and for linseed the trend was inconsistent. Requirement was reduced by 31.6% during 2020-21 to 2022-23 and increased by 10.5%, 136.8% and 10.5% during 2023-24 to 2025-26 over that of 2019-20. Certified/quality seed availability during 2020-21 to 2025-26 followed the similar trend as that of requirement. Seed availability during 2020-21 to 2025-26 surpassed or
at par (niger) with requirement except for safflower during 2019-20 when availability was lower by 14.3% and linseed during 2019-20, 2024-25 and 2025-26, when reduction of 31.6%, 2.2% and 4.8%, respectively, was recorded in seed availability (Table 9).
Output
Increased varietal diversity in the seed production chain
A vibrant breeding programme is quite essential and should continuously provide high yielding varieties for induction in the seed production chain to keep it dynamic. Breeding programme and seed production chain complements each other to enhance and sustain high oilseed production. Success of breeding programme of each minor crop was assessed on the basis of number of varieties available in seed chain for each one lakh ha area and share of recently released varieties in the seed chain. In this context, breeding programmes of all the minor oilseeds except castor are vibrant and most effective as number of varieties /lakh ha was very high varying from 2.96 (2021-22) to 16.0 (2023-24) for sunflower and 16.51 (2022-23) to 33.33 (2023-24) for safflower whereas; 0.24-0.93 for castor during 2019-20 to 2024-25 (Table 5). Further, varietal induction of varieties released up to 5 years prior to the initiation of the respective seed chain was also high (>60.0%) for safflower; linseed except 2022-23 and 2024-25; sunflower only during 2023-24 and niger only during 2019-20 and 2020-21. Varietal induction was low, in general for, castor (15.4%-50.0%). Further, share of top 10 varieties was very high for safflower (86.8%-100.0%), sunflower (83.6%-100.0%), niger (99.7%-100.0%) and castor (100.0%), reflecting dominance of a few varieties in seed chain. However, linseed had relatively lower contribution of 10 top varieties (70.0%-86.1%) suggesting diverse seed chain.
Seed production chain was characterized on the basis of contribution of recently released varieties (up to 5 years preceding the seed chain) to the share of top 10 varieties in the breeder seed indent as dynamic (>50.0%), dormant (36.%-50%) and latent (up to 35.0%). Nature of seed chain varied across the years. Castor seed chain was termed as dynamic during 2019-20 to 2024-25. Sunflower seed chain was characterized as dynamic (2019-2020, 2021-22, 2022-23 and 2024-25) and latent (2020-21 and 2023-24). Seed chain of niger was latent (2019-20, 2020-21, 2022-23 and 2024-25), dormant (2023-24) and dynamic (2021-22). Linseed chain was dynamic (2020-21, 2021-22, 2022-23), dormant (2019-20 and 2023-24) and latent (2024-25). Safflower seed chain was dynamic during 2020-21 to 2024-25 but latent during 2019-20.
Increased seed availability
Contribution of oilseeds to the total seed of field crops was 16.5%-18.0% to the requirement and 14.5%-17.9% to the availability during 2019-20 to 2025-26. There was no dearth of certified/quality seeds for minor oilseeds during 2020-21 to 2025-26 except safflower and linseed in a few years under analysis. Further, hybrid seeds of castor, sunflower and safflower contributed 1.18%-3.60% to the total hybrid seed requirement for field crops (19.4 lakh q-22.3 lakh q) during 2019-20 to 2025-26. The hybrid seed requirement and availability for castor, sunflower and safflower together ranged from 0.27 lakh q (2021-22)-0.76 lakh q (2024-25) and 0.71 lakh q during 2025-26 and 0.62 lakh q (2022-23)-0.97 lakh q (2024-25) and 0.89 lakh q in 2025-26, respectively (
Anonymous, 2026a). Hybrid seed requirement surged by 31.0% during 2022-23 to 97.4% (2024-25) and was 86.8% (0.71 lakh q) during 2025-26 over that of 2019-20 (0.38 lakh q) except a decline of 29.2% during 2021-22 and availability recorded an increase of 28.0% (2022-23)-101.0% (2024-25) over 0.48 lakh q during 2019-20 and was 85.4% during 2025-26. Seed availability was always higher than requirement by 11.5% (2023-24)-149.3% (2021-22) but only 25.4% during 2025-26 (
Anonymous, 2026a).
Seed distributed
Availability of certified/quality seed of crops to the growers/farmers is vital for increasing yield, thus, effective distribution of seeds through a well defined delivery system is foremost. Seed distributed for minor oilseeds, in general, was low as compared to soybean, groundnut, sesame and rapeseed-mustard because of less acreage, small seed size and low seed rate, except castor that had the highest quantity of seed distributed during 2019-20 to 2024-25 (Anonymous, 2026a). Castor seed distribution declined by 2.0% during 2020-21 and 2021-22 but thereafter increased by 3.2%-17.3% till 2024-25 (Table 10) over that of 2019-20. Sunflower seed distribution did not follow any specific trend but reduced drastically by 53.5% during 2024-25 whereas; safflower had increased seed distribution by 50.0%-87.5% since 2020-21. Linseed exhibited enhanced distribution during 2020-21 to 2024-25 by 50.0%-125.0% over that of 2019-20. The highest distribution for niger seed was observed during 2023-24 registering an increase of 62.0%.
Seed replacement rate
The seed replacement rate (SRR) is critical for enhancing yield, thereby, production of any crop and determined by pollination mode of crops,
viz. self- or cross pollinated and type of seed to be used (pure line varieties/ composite/ hybrids). Every state Department of Agriculture provides the crop-wise data of seed distribution (seed sale) and total seed requirement every year. The SRR is computed as the ratio of seed distributed (sold) to total seed requirement; expressed in percentage (https://seednet.gov.in, accessed during March 30-31, 2026). The SRR for sunflower ranged between 35.0% (2022-23) and 47.4% (2020-21) and had been declining since 2020-21, was less than the requisite SRR for open pollinated crops (50.0%) and extensive use of hybrids by farmers that need seed replacement every year. Castor SRR was very low 28.7% during 2022-23, in rest of the years maintained higher SRR than the threshold level of 50.0% varying from 56.2% (2020-21) to 71.3% (2024-25) but has scope for up-scaling as hybrids are widely under cultivation to further increase seed yield. Safflower largely a self pollinated crop needs only 33.0% SRR but except during 2020-21(21.5%) and 2021-22 (32.6%) steadily maintained very high SRR, 33.8% during 2019-20 to 73.8% during 2024-25. Efforts should continue to sustain higher SRR for castor and increasing for sunflower where hybrids are predominantly under cultivation. Nevertheless, high SRR in safflower is also not warranted where pure line varieties are predominantly under cultivation. Hence, judicious planning from the commencement of seed chain, downstream seed conversion and distribution seems to be focussed.
Outcome
Crop acreage, production and yield
The changes in acreage, production and yield of various minor oilseeds during 2024-25 in relation to that of 2019-20 revealed low reduction of 2.7% in production of castor due to yield enhancement of 5.2% despite 7.6% reduced cropped area (Fig 6). Sunflower registered substantial reduction in acreage (17.4%) but high production (14.3%) and yield enhancement of 30.4%. Niger also showed increased seed yield that negated the adverse effect of reduction in acreage to an extent of 25.7% and only 2.5% less production (Fig 6). Linseed had lower acreage, production and yield as compared to that of 2019-20 (Fig. 6). Concerning trend was observed for safflower where acreage was appreciably increased by 23.1% but both production and yield were lower than that of 2019-20.
Export
India exported 0.68 m t (2019-20) - 1.11 m t (2025-26) of oils and 0.82 m t (2021-22)- 1.05 m t (2019-20) of oilseeds during 2019-20 to 2025-26 and earned valuable foreign exchange worth Rs. 75.26 billions (2019-20) - Rs.165.69 (2025-26) and Rs. 83.10 billions (2021-22)- Rs 118.95 (2023-24), respectively (
Anonymous 2026a; http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in, visited on May 30, 2026).Castor oil was the main contributor to the foreign exchange earnings from the export of total oils during 2019-2025-26. It had a share of 65.8% (2025-26)-87.8% (2021-22) and 60.5% (2020-21)-84.1% (2021-22) in total export quantity of oils and foreign exchange earnings, respectively during 2019-20-2025-26 (Table 11). The highest contribution to quantity was 27.1% during 2024-25 and 60.3% to value of export of oils during 2022-23 over that of 2019-20 (Table 11).
Niger seed contributed 0.5%-1.74% to the total export earnings from export of seeds with about 0.5%-2.0% share in total exported quantity (Table 11). There was surge in exported quantity over that of 2019-20 until 2025-26 to an extent of 53.8% during 2020-21 but substantial reduction by 61.5% was observed during 2024-25 (Table 11). The highest earnings from export of niger seed was recorded during 2020-21 (Rs. 1.60 billions), an enhancement of 50.9% over that of 2019-20.
Future outlook
Acreage of minor oilseeds (castor, sunflower, niger and linseed) reduced during 2024-25 over that of 2019-20 by 6.1%-25.7%. This is a worrisome trend as these crops except sunflower can be grown in diverse, fragile agro-ecological system. Sunflower though exhaustive crop but can be grown in
rabi, kharif and
summer seasons and also possesses good nutritional quality oil due to high level of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid. Therefore, there is a need to critically analyze the reasons for such shift in acreage. Nevertheless, it is not convincing to produce such high amount of breeder seed against very low indents for sunflower until 2023-24. Such aberrations in the seed chain should be addressed appropriately. An analysis was carried out to work-out the availability for certified seed considering breeder seed production for 2024-25 with absolute conversion factor and expected cropped area of different oilseeds under certified seed and SRR during 2027-28, considering highest ever cropped area during the last 15 years (Table 12). The expected availability of certified seed for different minor oilseeds would be enough for achieving several folds higher SRR for the highest ever entire cropped area and projected requirement of breeder seed is very small and even during 2024-25 breeder seed produced was much higher than the amount needed to achieve the requisite SRR.
Considering declining acreage of minor oilseeds during the last five years of the current decade and low seed requirement there seems to be no rationality in such high indents for breeder seed as it was also reiterated earlier that breeder seed production is cost intensive
(Chauhan et al., 2024). Downstream conversion of breeder seed is the real issue in the seed production chain of field crops including minor oilseeds (
Chauhan et al., 2024). Seed chain even if works at 20%-25% efficiency, enough certified seed can be produced utilizing the breeder seed produced during 2024-25 (Table 12). But, in the present context, there is heavy dependence on private sector as their share in seed production in India is 71.2% during 2025-26 and no seed production chain is being followed. Seed is marketed as quality/labelled seed. Further, proper storage protocol for breeder seed should be developed to avoid production every year for not only minor oilseeds but also other small seeded crops with high SMR, low seed rate and small acreage.
