Organic manures supply essential nutrients to the soil which is crucial for the progression of sustainable agriculture. It is a constituent having biological derivation that can decompose naturally; in that process it can supply various essential nutrients to the soil, escalating soil fertility and microbial activity. Agricultural practices in the North Eastern Region of India rely on traditional methods, which are intricate, varied and vulnerable to risks (Das et al., 2017). The North-Eastern Region of India holds substantial prospective for advancing organic farming. However, the area faces challenges due to inherent nutrient deficiencies that must be addressed to improve land, water and crop productivity. Farmers in these hill ecosystems typically use very diminutive synthetic fertilizer (<12 kg ha^-1) and chemicals, which is complimentary for organic practices. Nevertheless, dependence on cereal dominated cultivation in the region coupled with limited application of soil amendments threatens the long term sustainability of soil and food production. About 84% of the soils in the region are acidic, with low levels of available phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn), though nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are generally present in medium to high amounts (Singh et al., 2021). FYM is the accumulated and decomposed output of animal housing areas, consisting of solid dung, urine, bedding materials such as straw, hay, or sawdust and remnants of plant feed (Kumar et al., 2024). Substantial improvement in pea production was recorded with the integration of organic manures particularly FYM in the hill district of Nagaland, India (Haiguipeung et al., 2025), similarly Balmiki et al., (2026) also substantiated the exploitation of FYM for improving the soil moisture content and soil properties to a greater extent, in a study executed in the North-Eastern Region of India, Nagaland. Vermicompost is a nutrient rich entity excreted by various species of earthworms after consuming organic waste whereby poultry manure is the droppings of chickens that includes urine, feathers, leftover feed and hay or saw dust (Ratnasari et al., 2023). Enriched manure is an advance organic fertilizer created by combining traditional manure with beneficial microbes and other organic manures (Subbaiah, 2019). Soil a medium where plant could thrive and healthy soil produce healthy plant. The organic substances increase the microbial activity, which help in decomposition organic matter and release of nutrient in plant- available form (Sekaran et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2024). A substantial increase in soil moisture and soil properties was noted with the addition of green manures like cowpea and dhaincha in an extensive study conducted in the hilly district of Nagaland, North East Region of India (Ngullie et al., 2025). At the chemical level, it enhances nutrient availability by supplying essential elements and increasing the soil’s buffering capacity. Biologically, organic manure stimulates microbial activity. Further, it mitigates soil degradation, boost crop productivity and encourage sustainable agriculture practices (Genrietta et al., 2022; Verma et al., 2024).
       
This investigation is precisely steered to comprehend the constructive implications on soil health as influenced by the introduction of organic manures in the soil. The global food demand has amplified significantly driven by the expanding global population which has created a trend to use excessive chemical fertilizer for achieving higher yield which often leads to adverse environmental impact and surge the soil degradation processes. To address these challenges and to demonstrate the potential of organic manures in the development and production of finger millet, this study was meticulously directed. Nagaland with its hilly terrain, steep slopes and undulating rainfall pattern is particularly complex to manage. Organic manures can supply essential macro and micro nutrients, it maintains the soil structure, provides organic matter and enhances the water holding capacity but most importantly it is environmentally friendly. This combined effect may foster an approach to a better and sustainable agriculture practice which may help the farmers and the general population over time. Furthermore, this study offers a comprehensive and systematic evaluation of how the application of organic manures influences key soil physical and chemical properties, at the experimental site.

The experiment was conducted in the trail field of the Department of Soil and Water Conservation, School of Agricultural Sciences, Medziphema Campus, Nagaland University. The latitude and longitude of the experimental farm was 25°45’43’’ N and 93°53’04’’ E. The experiment field is located at 310 m above sea level. The finger millet GPU 28 was considered for the trial and the study was initiated in the 2^nd fortnight of July, 2023. The experiment was steered in three bench terraces and consisted of nine (9) treatments and was replicated thrice. The treatments were T₁: Control; T₂: FYM 10 t ha^-1, T₃: FYM 5 t ha^-1, T₄: poultry manure 5 t ha^-1, T₅: poultry manure 2.5 t ha^-1, T₆: vermicompost 5 t ha^-1, T₇: vermicompost 2.5 t ha^-1, T₈: enriched manure 5 t ha^-1, T9: 2.5 t ha^-1 enriched manure summing to a total of 27 plots. Soil samples were collected to analyze the initial fertility status as detailed and outlined in Table 1 and other physico-chemical properties of the experiment field. The various soil properties were evaluated following standard procedures, i.e. pH: Glass electrode pH meter (1: 2.5 soil and water ratio) by Jackson (1973), Organic Carbon: Walkley and Black rapid titration (Walkley and Black, 1934), Cation exchange capacity: Centrifuge method (Baruah and Barthakur, 1997), Available N:  Alkaline Potassium Permanganate method (Subbiah and Asijia, 1956), Available P: Bray’s No. 1 method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) and Available K: Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate Method  (Hanway and Heidal, 1952), Particle density: Pycnometer method (Baruah and Barthakur, 1997), Bulk density: Pycnometer method (Baruah and Barthakur, 1997), Porosity {1-Bulk Density/Particle Density) x 100)}, Hydraulic conductivity: Constant head method (Klute, 1965), Water holding capacity: Keen Rackzowski boxes (Piper, 1966), Mean weight diameter: Yoder’s apparatus (Van Bavel, 1950) and Percent aggregates > 0.25 mm: Yoder’s apparatus (Van Bavel, 1950). Randomized Block Design (RBD) was used for the experiment and analysis of data was executed as outlined by Gomez and Gomez (2004).

Effect of organic manures on soil physical properties
 
Relevant data and the measured soil physical attributes obtained from the research are highlighted in Table 2. Particle density of the soil didn’t present significant variation with the addition of organic manures. Bulk density of the experimented plot presented significant reduction with the addition of organic manures particularly FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (1.15 g cm^-3) and 5 t ha^-1 (1.16 g cm^-3). Addition of 10 t ha^-1 FYM resulted in the reduction of bulk density recording 5.21% increase in contrast to the reference plot where no organic inputs were added (1.21 g cm^-3). Incorporation of manures significantly reduced bulk density. The maximum hydraulic conductivity was recorded in FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (3.0cm h^-1), Poultry manure @ 5 t ha^-1 (2.7 cm h^-1), Vermicompost @ 5 t ha^-1 (2.8 cm h^-1) and enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 (2.7 cm h^-1) as these had statistically at par data and recorded for increase of 42.85%, 28.57%, 33.33%, 28.57% compared to control (2.1 cm h^-1). The peak was quantified in plots where FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (53.81%) was inducted and the minimal effect was eminent in the untreated plot (45.21%) this amounted an increase of 17.12% in soil porosity in FYM intervened plot. Supplementation of vermicompost and enriched manure revealed momentous raise in porosity relative to control. Study executed in GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in 2006-2007 highlighted that the impact of organic manures and the nutrients it supplies to the soil tends to develop the inherent capacity of the soil with special emphasis on soil properties like bulk density, water holding capacity, porosity and the soil organic carbon (Jagadeesha et al., 2019). FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (52.95%) proved to be the best treatment amongst all the other in improving the water holding capacity of the experimental site whilst minimal level was noticeable in untreated control plot (41.49%). The experimental data clearly indicate that there is significant increase in mean weight diameter upon application of organic manure with the highest being the FYM @10 t ha^-1 (1.65 mm) and lowest in control (1.35 mm). This accounted for an increase in 22.22% in MWD compared to control. The Poultry manure @ 5 and 2.5 t ha^-1 and Vermicompost @ 5 t ha^-1 have at par results that accounted for an increase of 20.00%, 19.25% and 17.77% in MWD, respectively. FYM @ 5 t ha^-1 (1.48 mm), Enriched Manure @ 2.5 t ha^-1 (1.48 mm) had at par results with an increase of 9.62% compared to control. The vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha^-1 (1.51 mm) and enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 (1.55 mm) accounted for an increase of 11.85% and 14.81%, respectively as compared to control. There is significantly increase in percent aggregate > 0.25 mm in FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (96.83%) treated plots as compared to control (84.23%). An increase of 14.95% in percent aggregate in FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 was observed relative to control. Poultry manure @ 2.5 t ha^-1 (95.10%) and enriched manure @ 2.5 t ha^-1 (95.57%) showed correspondingly higher readings and accounted for a boost of 12.9% and 13.46% in percent aggregate respectively, over control.


 
Effect of organic manures on soil chemical properties
 
The recorded data pertaining to soil chemical parameters obtained and noted in this study is presented in Table 3. The data recorded from experiments publicized that after the addition of organic manure there was a trivial decline in the soil pH value. The pH of control was the highest with (5.21) and the treatment enriched manure @ 2.5 t ha^-1 had presented the lowermost pH (4.35). About 16.50% diminution had been perceived between maximum value and minimum value. Mahmood et al., (2017) initiate that soil pH and bulk density decreased with the induction of organic fertilizer. Enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 presented the highest pH value 5.00 among various other organic treatments. The greatest variation was observed between treatment in enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 (5.00) and 2.5 t ha^-1 (4.35). Addition of FYM and vermicompost @ 10 t ha^-1 and 2.5 t ha^-1 had statistically comparable values with that of the induction of FYM 5 t ha^-1 and poultry manure @ 5 t ha^-1. FYM (10 t ha^-1) presented 1.14% rise in organic carbon content in contrast to reference plot (control) with OC of 0.87%, this accounted for an increase of 31.03% in organic carbon with the induction of FYM @ 10 t ha^-1. Application of FYM, poultry manure, vermicompost and enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1, respectively have a higher average organic carbon content and accounted for an increase of 26.43%, 16.09%, 18.39%, 22.98% in soil as compared to control. Integration of organic manures escalated the soil organic carbon stock especially in intermediate and shallow topsoil which was at 9.5 Mg ha^-1 in 0-1 5 cm and 13.6 Mg ha^-1 in 16-20 cm. The soil organic carbon stock was also observed to be amplified in deep soil which was recorded at 4.6 Mg ha^-1 in >20cm depth in spite of tillage intensity (Gross and Glaser, 2021) and (Balasubramanian and Chinnamuthu, 2021). The data unveiled substantial progression in the cation exchange capacity of the soil with the induction of organic manures within the edaphic environment of the trial site. The peak CEC content was witnessed in enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 and Vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha^-1 with 12.21 and 12.01{cmol (p+) kg^-1} and lowest in control 8.86 {cmol (p+) kg^-1} with increase of 37.81% and 33.55% in CEC as compared to control. Konyak et al., (2020) found that higher CEC values, possibly due to higher organic matter content in the forest soils ensued in the higher concentration of CEC. Available nitrogen considerably amplified in the soil when integrated with organic manures with both FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 and vermicompost @ 5 t ha^-1 application both stretched peak levels (459.95 kg ha^-1) whilst control plots being the lowest (271.79 kg ha^-1) as presented in the data table. An augment of 69.22% available nitrogen was noted when evaluated. Poultry manure @ 5 t ha^-1, vermicompost @ 2.5 ha^-1 and enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1 had comparable available nitrogen content in soil (439.04 kg ha^-1) that accounted to a surge of 61.56% available N as compared to plots where no manures were incorporated. These findings were similar to that of Koireng et al., (2018). FYM @ 5 t ha^-1, poultry manure @ 2.5 and enriched manure @ 2.5 t ha ha^-1 accounted for a proliferation of 23.10%, 30.83% and 23.06% respectively in contrast to untreated plot. The availability of phosphorus content of the soil escalated with the administration of FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 (15.91 kg ha^-1) and poultry manure @ 5 t ha^-1 (16.52 kg ha^-1). Plot where no organic manures were amended resulted in the least accumulation of available phosphorus (10.04 kg ha^-1). An upsurge of 58.46% and 64.54% in P content was recorded when compared. On the basis of average value observed there was significant increase in available P in soil treated with organic manure. The addition of vermicompost and enriched manure @ 5t ha^-1 resulted in an increase of 46.91 and 48.30% of available P as compared to control. FYM, poultry manure, vermicompost and enriched manure @ 5 t ha^-1, 2.5 t ha^-1, 2.5 t ha^-1 and 2.5 t ha^-1 accounted for a rise of 32.37%, 32.27%, 35.45%, 26.39% available P, respectively as compared to untreated plots. The available K content in soil was significantly higher in the treatment vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha^-1 (169.87 kg ha^-1) and the least in the reference plot (102.67 kg ha^-1). This intensification in available K with the addition of vermicompost @ 5 t ha^-1 was 65.45%. The FYM, poultry manure and enriched compost @ 10 t ha^-1, 5 t ha^-1 and 2.5 t ha^-1 had ensued a proliferation of 55.19%, 49.08%, 49.08% in available K content, respectively.

The findings of the investigation emphasize the significance of incorporation of organic manures and the impact it brought in maintaining soil health. The physical and chemical properties of the soil were rejuvenated with the induction of organic manures such as Farm Yard Manure, Vermicompost and Enriched Manure. With the integration of organic manures substantial fraction of soil properties were invigorated, presenting enhanced soil properties like pH (5.21), organic carbon (1.14%), cation exchange capacity {12.11 cmol (p+) kg^-1}, available nitrogen (459.95 kg ha^-1), available phosphorus (16.52 kg ha^-1), available potassium (169.87 kg ha^-1), porosity (53.81%), water holding capacity (52.95%), hydraulic Conductivity (3.0 cm h^-1), per cent aggregate > 0.25 mm (95.57%) and mean weight diameter (1.65 mm). Overall, the study highlights the integrated application of organic manures particularly at higher rates. The judicious use of organic manures can play a critical role in enhancing nutrient availability and sustaining long term soil health and productivity. Further comprehensive research is warranted especially in the North-East Hill Region of India to understand the role of organic manures in steep and undulating topography.

The present study was supported by the Department of Soil and Water Conservation, Nagaland University, School of Agricultural Sciences, Medziphema Campus.
 
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The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect loss resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.