Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the world’s most important staple cereals, supporting food and nutritional security for millions of people. This hexaploid (2n = 42) member of the Poaceae family is predominantly cultivated during the Rabi season, thriving under cool early growth and relatively warmer grain-filling conditions. Wheat grain contains approximately 70-72% carbohydrates, 10-14% protein, about 2% fat, 1.8-2.0% minerals and nearly 2.2% crude fiber (Kumar et al., 2011). It contributes nearly 55% carbohydrates and about 21% of calories in the global human diet (Khalid et al., 2023). It also supplies important micronutrients and vitamins including thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3) and vitamin E, with traces of vitamin A (Iqbal et al., 2022; Youssef, 2015). Approximately 765.8 million metric tons of wheat are produced annually from about 215.9 million hectares worldwide, with China, Russia and India contributing nearly 41% of the total production. In India, wheat accounts for around 49% of the total Rabi food grain production (USDA, 2025). According to the second advance estimates of the Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (DA and FW, 2023-24), wheat is cultivated on about 30.50 million hectares with a total production of 112.02 million metric tons and an average productivity of 3.67 t ha^-1. With the global population projected to reach 9-10 billion by 2050, wheat production must increase by at least 2% annually to meet the growing food demand (FAO, 2020). However, wheat productivity largely depends on balanced nutrient supply and enhanced nutrient-use efficiency through sustainable management practices (Naderi and Shahraki, 2013). Nano-fertilizers have emerged as a promising innovation for enhancing nutrient-use efficiency, improving soil health and increasing crop productivity (Shang et al., 2019). Compared with conventional fertilizers, nano-fertilizers possess extremely small particle sizes, generally below 100 nm, which increases their surface-to-volume ratio and improves nutrient availability and plant uptake (Benzon et al., 2015; Qureshi et al., 2018). Integration of nano-fertilizers with conventional nutrient sources can enhance plant growth, nutrient uptake and crop yield, while reducing nutrient losses and environmental hazards (Fatima et al., 2021). Foliar application of nano-fertilizers is particularly effective, as nutrients are directly absorbed through leaves, thereby improving nutrient-use efficiency (Marzouk et al., 2019; Acharya et al., 2023). Azotobacter naturally colonizes soil and enriches crop growth by supplying biologically fixed nitrogen, releasing growth-promoting substances and improving the availability and absorption of essential nutrients. It also promotes stress tolerance and suppresses pathogens, thereby improving germination, plant vigor and yield, with native strains exhibiting better adaptability and efficiency (Biswal, 2024; Imran et al., 2021). Integrated use of Azotobacter with nano urea and nano DAP through seed and foliar application improves early nutrient availability, enhances crop growth and supports sustainable productivity with reduced chemical fertilizer dependence (Shaifali et al., 2024). Additionally, the combined use of nano-fertilizers and biofertilizers improves grain quality traits, including protein content, gluten strength and mineral enrichment (Pandey et al., 2025; Arora et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2026). Despite increasing interest in nano-enabled nutrient management and microbial inoculants, information on their integrated influence under the semi-arid agroecosystem of Haryana remains inadequate. Accordingly, this investigation examined the combined impact of nano-fertilizers and Azotobacter on wheat growth, yield formation, productivity and economic performance under field conditions.

During the 2023-24 Rabi season, a field investigation was carried out at the Agronomy Research Farm, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, SGT University, Gurugram, Haryana, India (28.47°N, 77.03°E; 217 m above mean sea level). The experimental site belongs to Agro-ecological Region 3 (M9E1). During crop growth, cumulative rainfall reached 156.1 mm, while air temperature varied between 3.0°C and 38.4°C. Surface soil (0-15 cm) was sampled before sowing and characterized using established analytical procedures. The soil comprised 62.71% sand, 18.84% silt and 18.45% clay, classifying it as sandy loam. It was moderately alkaline (pH 8.25) with normal salinity (EC 1.4 dS m^-1). Seven nutrient-management treatments were established to compare different combinations of recommended fertilizer dosage, Azotobacter inoculation and Nano Urea and Nano DAP supplied through seed treatment and foliar application at selected developmental stages of the wheat crop. Seven treatment combinations were formulated by integrating recommended fertilizer levels with Azotobacter, Nano Urea and Nano DAP to assess their influence on wheat performance. The experimental treatments were: T₁, no fertilizer control; T₂, 100% RDF (120:60:40 kg N:P₂O₅ :K₂O ha^-1); T₃, 100% RDF + Azotobacter; T₄, 75% RDF + Azotobacter + foliar Nano Urea at CRI and flowering + foliar Nano DAP at booting and flowering; T₅, 50% RDF + Nano Urea and Nano DAP seed treatment + foliar Nano Urea at CRI + foliar Nano DAP at pre-flowering; T₆, 50% RDF + Nano Urea and Nano DAP seed treatment + foliar Nano Urea and Nano DAP at CRI and flowering; and T₇, Nano Urea and Nano DAP seed treatment + foliar Nano Urea at flowering + foliar Nano DAP at CRI and flowering. Wheat cv. HD 2967 received treatment-specific applications of Nano Urea (4 ml kg^-1 seed), Nano DAP (4 ml kg^-1 seed) and Azotobacter inoculum (5 ml kg^-1 seed). The seeds were thoroughly mixed with the respective treatment formulations for approximately 5-10 minutes to ensure uniform coating. After shade drying for 30-45 minutes, sowing was carried out on 13 November 2023 using 100 kg seed ha^-1 in 3 x 3 m plots with 22.5 cm row spacing. Nano Urea and Nano DAP solutions (4 ml L^-1) were sprayed at designated crop developmental stages according to the treatment schedule (IFFCO, 2021a; IFFCO, 2023). Crop health was maintained throughout the season using recommended practices for weed, insect and disease management. Crop performance was monitored throughout the growing period by recording plant height (cm) and above-ground biomass (g m^-2) at different growth stages. At physiological maturity, observations on productive tillers (mrl), spike length (cm), spikelets per spike and 1000-grain weight (g) were collected to assess yield components. Grain, straw and total biological production were determined on a hectare basis (kg ha^-1), while the harvest index (%) was computed to express the proportion of grain yield in relation to total biomass. Statistical evaluation of all observations was carried out using analysis of variance appropriate for a randomized block design, following the methodology of Gomez and Gomez (1984). Treatment means were compared using OPSTAT statistical software (CCS HAU, Hisar) at the 5% significance level (P≤0.05).

Growth parameters
 
Nutrient management practices produced significant differences in wheat growth. The greatest vegetative development was observed under T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter), which attained the maximum plant height (95.20 cm) and above-ground biomass (1353.33 g m^-2) at 120 DAS (Table 1), demonstrating its superior effectiveness in promoting crop growth. The enhanced growth under this treatment may be attributed to the synergistic effect of chemical fertilizers and Azotobacter, which improves nitrogen fixation, nutrient availability and secretion of plant growth-promoting substances, resulting in better root development and biomass production (Gangwar et al., 2018; Mahato and Kafle, 2018; Yadav et al., 2023; Pandey et al., 2026). Treatments T₂ 100% RDF (120:60:40 kg N:P₂O₅: K₂O ha^-1) and T₄ (75% RDF + Azotobacter + foliar spray (FS) of Nano Urea at the crown root initiation (CRI) and flowering stages + FS of Nano DAP at the booting and flowering stages) were statistically at par with T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter) for most growth parameters, indicating that partial substitution of RDF with nano-fertilizers can sustain crop growth (Qureshi et al., 2018; Devi et al., 2025). Conversely, the T₁ (no fertilizer) exhibited the poorest growth performance, reflecting the adverse effect of insufficient nutrient supply on plant development and biomass production.


 
Yield attributes
 
Yield-contributing traits varied significantly in response to the evaluated nutrient management practices (Table 2). The most favourable values were obtained with T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter), which produced 110 effective tillers (mrl), a spike length of 15.43 cm, 63.33 spikelets per spike and a 1000-grain weight of 47.90 g. The superior reproductive performance under this treatment was likely associated with improved nutrient acquisition, biological nitrogen fixation and more efficient assimilate partitioning from vegetative tissues to developing grains during crop growth. These findings are in agreement with (Mehta and Bharat, 2019; Biswas et al., 2024; Borana et al., 2024). Treatments T₄ (75% RDF + Azotobacter + foliar spray (FS) of Nano Urea at the crown root initiation (CRI) and flowering stages + FS of Nano DAP at the booting and flowering stages) and T₆  (50% RDF + ST with Nano Urea and Nano DAP + FS of Nano Urea at the CRI and flowering stages + FS of Nano DAP at the CRI and flowering stages) showed statistically comparable performance with T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter), indicating that partial substitution of RDF with nano-fertilizers effectively sustained yield attributes through improved nutrient-use efficiency and enhanced foliar nutrient absorption at critical crop growth stages (Qureshi et al., 2018; Marzouk et al., 2019). Plants grown without nutrient supplementation (T₁) produced the lowest growth values, suggesting that limited nutrient availability constrained canopy development, tiller formation and efficient assimilate allocation.


 
Yield
 
Significant treatment effects were observed for grain, straw and biological yields (Table 2). The highest productivity was achieved with T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter), producing 5733 kg ha^-1 grain yield, 7277 kg ha^-1 straw yield and 13010 kg ha^-1 biological yield. Comparable performance was obtained with T₄ (75% RDF combined with Azotobacter and foliar Nano Urea and Nano DAP) and T₂ (100% RDF), although their values remained lower than those of T₃. The superior yield response under T₃  indicates that integrating recommended fertilization with Azotobacter created a favourable nutritional environment, promoting efficient photosynthesis, greater nutrient acquisition and effective allocation of assimilates toward grain development, ultimately resulting in enhanced crop productivity. These findings are consistent with (Gangwar et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2023; Reddy et al., 2025; Pandey et al., 2026). Although T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter) produced the highest yield, the performance of T₄ (75% RDF integrated with Azotobacter and foliar Nano Urea and Nano DAP) and T₆ (50% RDF supplemented with Nano Urea and Nano DAP through seed treatment and foliar application) remained statistically comparable. These observations indicate that nano-fertilizer supplementation enhanced fertilizer-use efficiency by facilitating rapid foliar nutrient absorption and improving nutrient availability during key developmental phases. Consequently, reduced mineral fertilizer inputs were able to sustain grain production without causing a significant decline in wheat productivity under the prevailing semi-arid conditions. The control treatment (no fertilizer) recorded the lowest yield due to nutrient deficiency limiting growth. Harvest index did not vary significantly among treatments, the highest value (45.17%) was recorded under T₅ (50% RDF + seed treatment (ST) with Nano Urea and Nano DAP + FS of Nano Urea at the CRI stage + FS of Nano DAP at the pre-flowering stage), which may be attributed to relatively better assimilate partitioning towards grains under moderate nutrient supply (Biswas et al., 2024; Sheoran et al., 2024; Tripathi et al., 2025).
 
Economics
 
Economic performance varied significantly among the nutrient management treatments (Table 3). The highest economic returns were achieved with T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter), which achieved the highest net returns (₹111,947 ha^-1), benefit-cost ratio (2.78) and daily profitability (₹823.14 ha^-1 day^-1). These favourable economic outcomes were primarily associated with increased grain production and efficient utilization of production inputs. The integration of recommended fertilization with Azotobacter improved resource-use efficiency, thereby enhancing crop productivity and overall farm profitability under the experimental conditions. These findings are supported by (Verma et al., 2016; Jat et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2025). Although T₄  (75% RDF integrated with Azotobacter and foliar Nano Urea and Nano DAP) involved the greatest cultivation cost because of additional nano-fertilizer use, its economic return remained comparable to T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter). Likewise, T₅ and T₆, which combined reduced fertilizer doses with Nano Urea and Nano DAP, produced satisfactory financial returns, demonstrating the economic feasibility of nano-based nutrient management. In comparison, T₁ (no fertilizer) recorded the lowest profitability because restricted nutrient availability reduced crop productivity and ultimately limited gross and net economic returns under field conditions.

The present investigation demonstrated that T₃ (100% RDF + Azotobacter) was the most effective nutrient management treatment for improving wheat growth, yield and economic returns under the semi-arid conditions of Haryana. Comparable performance observed under T₄ (75% RDF integrated with Azotobacter and foliar application of Nano Urea and Nano DAP) and T₆ (50% RDF combined with Nano Urea and Nano DAP through seed treatment and foliar application) suggests that nano-fertilizers can effectively supplement reduced rates of conventional fertilizers without compromising crop productivity. These findings indicate that integrating Azotobacter with Nano Urea and Nano DAP offers a sustainable and economically viable nutrient management strategy for wheat cultivation in semi-arid environments.

The authors sincerely acknowledge the valuable guidance and encouragement received during this research. They also thank the Dean, faculty members and staff of SGT University, Gurugram, Haryana, along with their friends and family for continuous support and motivation throughout the study.
 
Disclaimers 
 
The interpretations and conclusions presented in this manuscript are exclusively those of the authors and should not be considered official views of their affiliated institutions. The authors have exercised due care but assume no responsibility for any consequences arising from its use.
 
Informed consent
 
The study was undertaken after obtaining the required institutional approval and relevant permissions. Experimental activities were implemented following established agricultural research guidelines, with due adherence to accepted ethical principles, institutional requirements and applicable regulatory standards throughout the investigation.

The authors affirm that no financial, personal, institutional, or professional relationships influenced the planning, conduct, analysis, or presentation of this research. Every author has reviewed, approved and accepted the final manuscript and supports its submission for consideration and publication in the journal.