Yield attributes and yield of wheat
Evaluation was conducted of the effects of cropping geometry and organic amendments on wheat yield and yield attributes, where significant differences in yield performance were found between treatments. Sole wheat cropping was the most productive for grain as well as straw yield across all intercropping systems. The maximum potential in sole wheat is brought by optimal land use management and without crop competition with results of better availability for nutrient, water, as well as light
(Panhwar et al., 2019). The presented data Table 1 correspond to
Liu et al., (2023) that concluded sole crops allow to reach maximum crop yields since the crop encounter less limitations for growth. The observed high yield in sole wheat is in agreement with previous researches, where monoculture systems showed higher productivity compared to intercropped systems.
However, the intercropping systems, especially wheat + chickpea (3:1 ratio), offered several ecological and agronomic advantages, such as better soil health and nutrient cycling. The 3:1 intercropping system, where 75% of the area was allocated to wheat, performed better than the 2:2 intercropping system, where 50% of the area was allocated to wheat. The beneficial effect of chickpea to soil fertility through nitrogen fixation will therefore be the major reason behind the higher productivity of the 3:1 system for the growth of the wheat crop. This is consistent with
Khan et al., (2020), which reported that leguminous crops such as chickpea have a significant role in the improvement of soil fertility due to the atmospheric nitrogen fixing, thereby increasing the companion crops such as wheat growth.
The highest spike density in sole wheat was obtained with the organic treatment especially in FYM (10 t ha-¹) + vermicompost (6 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter and PSB. Organic amendments have been reported to improve soil structure, nutrient availability and microbial activity that results in better plant growth
(Chen et al., 2021). These organic management resulted in improved soil properties directly benefiting wheat through their contribution to nutrients availability for better root growth and hence its growth. The intercropping, especially chickpea-based systems, produced somewhat lower spike density attributed to lower density of the wheat plants. Nonetheless, the positive role that chickpea can perform in the nitrogen-fixation process and improving the quality of the soil is, therefore, recognized; chickpea enhances fertility through the growth of wheat plants (
Kebede, 2021).
In intercropping system, wheat + chickpea was longest in spike length with the ratio of 3:1. This will further support the idea that intercropping systems enhance plant characteristics when combined with proper nutrient management. Results are in agreement with Kumar et al. (2020), who stated that positive impact upon the spike length could be affected by intercropping system when efficient plant spacing with proper nutrient management is achieved. The organic amendments, FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) +
Azotobacter and PSB, improved the elongation of the spike as a result of better nutrient supply in terms of macro and micronutrients in the soil.
The number of spikelets per spike was greater in intercropping systems, especially in the 3:1 and 2:2 ratios. This is due to the balanced spacing and improved nutrient uptake from organic amendments, which created better growth conditions for the wheat plants. Such improvements in the number of spikelets under intercropping systems have been reported in earlier studies
(Qiao et al., 2021; Sheha et al., 2022). The organic amendments, including poultry manure and biofertilizers, increased the number of spikelets by enhancing phosphorus availability and improving soil fertility.
Test weight, yet another indicator of grain quality, was recorded to be the highest with the intercropping systems 3:1. The beneficial interaction probably between organic inputs like FYM and poultry manure and biofertilizer might have further enhanced test weight. Improved soil fertility is a product of those inputs, thus bettering grain development for higher test weight. The same outcome was reported by
Mukhtiar et al., (2018), wherein they stated that organic amendments improved phosphorus availability by enhancing nutrient availability, consequently improving wheat grain quality.
The pattern followed for biological yield was the same as that followed by grain and straw yield, where sole wheat exhibited the highest biological yield, as it should be. Intercropping systems, especially chickpea-based ones, exhibited lower biological yields but still provided great ecological and agronomic benefits, including increased nitrogen fixation and improved root growth, which is good for long-term soil health and sustainability
(Kumawat et al., 2022; Yu et al., 2022).
The highest straw yield was recorded in sole wheat, which indicated the full exploitation of available land space. However, the intercropping systems, especially wheat + chickpea, had slightly lower straw yields, which might be due to competition between the two crops for light, water and nutrients. Organic amendments enhanced biomass production, which led to better straw yield than control treatments
(Singh et al., 2022).
The highest harvest index was in the 2:2 intercropping system followed by the 3:1 system and sole wheat. Higher harvest index in intercropped systems implies that intercropping systems, through improved resource use efficiency, resulted in better dry matter partitioning to the grain. Organic treatments, especially those involving FYM in association with poultry manure added with biofertilizer, were very crucial toward improving resource use efficiency toward better dry matter accumulation and grain production efficiency improves
(Garg et al., 2024).
Sole wheat resulted in higher grain yields, whereas intercropping systems, especially those of wheat + chickpea, gave several ecological and agronomic benefits with better soil fertility, enhanced resource use efficiency and increased nitrogen fixation. The yield attributes of wheat were strongly improved by organic amendments, both in the sole as well as intercropping systems, which makes organic amendments a promising option for sustainable wheat production. These findings support the potential of integrating organic farming practices with intercropping systems to improve crop productivity while promoting soil health and sustainability.
The experimental results indicate that the 2:2 wheat + chickpea intercropping system outperformed the 3:1 ratio in terms of several yield attributes and overall yield. Organic amendments played a crucial role in enhancing the growth and productivity of chickpea, with the combination of vermicompost (3 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB showing the most consistent improvements across all yield parameters.
Yield attributes and yield of chickpea
The highest number of pods per plant was observed in the 2:2 wheat + chickpea intercropping system. Organic treatment FYM 5 t ha-¹ + poultry manure 2 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB performed better than others. This result Table 2 has demonstrated that organic amendments have enhanced branch development and photosynthate translocation, which is necessary for pod formation. With intercropping chickpea, an increased pod number may be explained by the higher area under cultivation for the crop, decreased competition by wheat and enhanced soil fertility resulting from organic inputs. Results in line with those of
Singh and Aulakh (2017), which indicate that the organic treatment favors pod production in legumes. Similar trends have been documented by
Raza et al., (2023), Singh et al., (2019) and
Devi et al., (2024) who have also recorded an increase in pod number through organic amendments.
The 2:2 wheat + chickpea intercropping system was also highly favorable to the number of seeds per pod and number of seeds per plant. The highest seed number per pod was recorded by vermicompost (3 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) +
Azotobacter + PSB followed by FYM (10 t ha-¹) + vermicompost (6 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB. These treatments substantially outgrew the control and demonstrated the synergistic interaction between organic amendments and biofertilizers for enhancing seed development. In addition, the increase in seeds per plant was observed in the same treatments as above, reflecting enhanced nutrient availability and better plant growth. This result is supported by the findings of
Alhammad and Seleiman (2023),
Bhardwaj et al., (2024) and
Coulibaly et al., (2023), who mentioned that organic treatments and biofertilizers improve seed formation in legumes.
The seed index, expressed as weight per 100 seeds, was significantly higher in the 2:2 intercropping system compared to the 3:1 ratio. Among the organic treatments, the combination of vermicompost (3 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB produced the highest seed index, followed by FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB. The improvement in seed index could be due to the better uptake of nutrients, retention of moisture and fixation of phosphorus due to organic amendments. These findings are in line with
Amadou et al., (2021), Ullah et al., (2021) and
Agegnehu et al., (2016), who reported that seed quality and yield in intercropped legumes were improved by organic inputs.
Grain yield was considerably higher in the 2:2 wheat + chickpea intercropping system compared to the 3:1 system; the highest yield was, however, recorded under organic treatment of vermicompost (3 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB. The results, in terms of yield improvements can be traced to the better availability of nutrients and structure of soil that was improved by organic treatments for growth and formation of grain by chickpea. Stover yields show similar trends as in previous studies where the 2:2 intercrop performed much better than the 3:1 ratio. The stover yield was the maximum when FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) +
Azotobacter + PSB were given. Organic amendments led to a better nutrient cycling and higher biomass production, thereby boosting the overall crop productivity. The results of these investigations are in agreement with those of
Singh et al., (2022), Kumar et al., (2020) and
Roohi et al., (2022), which reported that organic amendments promoted yield performance in intercrop systems.
The highest biological yield was recorded in the 2:2 wheat + chickpea system, where it was significantly higher than that in the 3:1 ratio. The combination of FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB proved to be the most effective organic treatment. This result can be attributed to the improved nutrient availability and soil structure provided by organic amendments, which promoted both grain and stover production. The harvest index, which is the ratio of grain yield to biological yield, was also significantly higher in the 2:2 intercropping system than in the 3:1 system. Vermicompost (3 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB resulted in the best performance and indicated that organic amendments contribute towards better partitioning of biomass towards grain production. These results are in line with
Celestina et al., (2019), who reported the application of organic amendments that improved the efficiency of harvesting.
The WEY of the 3:1 intercropping system was much higher and FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB was the best treatment. This suggests that both crops in the intercrop have benefits from shared resources but also highlights the fact that the 2:2 system was still able to yield more chickpeas. The reason for this might be that this system might have been more productive in general. This result is similar to that of
Bedoussac et al., (2015), who report increased crop productivity due to intercropping with organic inputs.
The 2:2 wheat + chickpea intercropping system with organic treatments consisting of vermicompost, poultry manure and biofertilizers significantly improved the yield attributes as well as overall crop productivity. Such results will serve to emphasize the possibility of enhancing intercropping systems as well as organic amendments toward improved resource utilization, fertility gain in soils and agroecological sustainability in crops. Results support growing lines of evidence showing that organic agriculture enhances crop yield and quality.
Wheat equivalent yield (t ha-1)
Both the intercropping systems and the organic amendments significantly influenced the wheat equivalent yield. Wheat + chickpea 3:1 row ratio resulted in the highest yield with nearly 1.08% greater yield than the wheat + chickpea 2:2 row ratio that resulted from intercropping systems with an overall benefit as illustrated in Table 3. In respect to organic amendment, FYM (5 t ha-¹) + poultry manure (2 t ha-¹) + Azotobacter + PSB recorded highest yield at par of each individual treatment at a level of 2.95 t/ha with significant higher compared to the control plot of 39.61% due to growth promoting substance secretion from the organic amendment, thus root and nutrient assimilation will improve leading towards a better yield.
Economics of wheat and chickpea intercropping
The cost of cultivation is the most significant factor in determining agricultural productivity and economic viability. It is divided into Cost A, which consists of hired labor, machinery, inputs and miscellaneous charges; Cost B, which adds land rental and working capital interest; and Cost C, which incorporates family labor costs. The inputs must yield a commensurate return to ensure profitability. Higher returns compared to the cultivation cost are indicative of economic success (
McArthur and McCord, 2017).
In the current study, the highest cultivation cost (x 1,18,739) was recorded for wheat + chickpea intercropping in a 2:2 ratio under the organic treatment of FYM 10 t ha-¹ + VC 6 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB. The other intercropping ratios and the pure wheat treatment showed similar patterns with costs ranging from x 1,15,474 to x 1,18,591 (Table 3). These costs reflected higher input expenses associated with applying organic amendments. Such expenses are necessary in the analysis of financial returns for adopting organic practices (
Nemes, 2009).
On the contrary, control plots had significantly less cultivation cost, ranging from x 65,255 to x 68,520. This is because organic amendments were absent, which otherwise could have been costly; thus, conventional agricultural systems have a cost-saving potential. However, the trade-off with conventional systems is lesser yield and reduced environmental sustainability over time (
Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019).
Gross returns, a direct reflection of the monetary value gained from crop yields, were significantly higher for the intercropping systems, with the 3:1 and 2:2 ratios of wheat and chickpea. The organic treatments also showed superior returns and FYM 5 t ha-¹+ PM 2 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB had the highest returns. These returns were closely followed by VC 3 t ha-¹ + PM 2 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB (
El-Mehy and Mohamed, 2018). The intercropping systems are able to provide higher gross returns compared to the sole crop by allowing the complementary effects of chickpea in the process of nitrogen fixation as well as improved solar radiation interception, which enhances photosynthesis for both crops
(Dwivedi et al., 2016).
The net returns obtained by subtracting the costs of cultivation from the gross returns indicated that the ratio 3:1 for wheat + chickpea intercropping gave far greater net returns compared with the 2:2 ratio and monocropped wheat. The best net returns from the organic treatments were furnished by FYM 5 t ha-¹ + PM 2 t ha-¹ +
Azotobacter + PSB, thus strengthening further the profitability of the organic farming systems. However, FYM 10 t ha-¹ + VC 6 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB treated plots showed a high net return with the highest increase in yields but was relatively lower due to high input costs. These results are in keeping with other studies that indicated the economic benefits of intercropping systems over sole cropping.
Chen et al., (2019) have indicated that intercropping systems can increase the profitability by a considerable percentage, especially when combined with organic amendments. These results further indicate the economic viability of incorporating leguminous crops like chickpea into intercropping systems as it will help improve fertility of the soil and avoid chemical fertilizers.
The Benefit-Cost (B:C) ratio, a critical measure of economic efficiency, was notably higher for the 3:1 wheat + chickpea intercropping ratio than for the 2:2 ratio and sole wheat. Among the organic treatments, FYM 5 t ha-¹ + PM 2 t ha-¹ + Azotobacter + PSB outperformed others, yielding the highest B:C ratio. This suggests the economic feasibility of the application of organic amendments with intercropping systems, enhancing not only productivity but also sustainability in the environment (
Glaze-Corcoran et al., 2020). Maize-legume intercropping enhanced grain yield, stover yield, MEY and B:C ratio, with pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha exerting effective weed control
(Sannagoudar et al., 2024). Balancing resources and food productivity in India is a challenge and efficient intercropping is necessary for sustainability
(Sharmili et al., 2021).Finger millet-horsegram intercropping increased land use efficiency and weed suppression (
Pradhan et al., 2018). Cereal-legume intercrops, such as triticale/pea and barley/pea, enhanced grain yield and quality in low-fertility soils
(Benider et al., 2021). These findings highlight intercropping’s role in sustainable agriculture.
