<div>Pulses in India have been considered as the poor man&rsquo;s only source of protein. Among them Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an important food legume which is also known as vegetable meat due to high amount of protein in the grain with better biological value on dry weight basis. Various factors viz., diseases and insect pests are mostly responsible for its low production.&nbsp;Among diseases, web blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani is one of the most important disease of cowpea. The web blight appears every year at varying intensity and causes heavy losses in yield. Web blight disease is most severe at seedling and vegetative stage. The disease is characterized by oval or spindle shaped brown black lesions having length ranging from 0.2-8 cm at soil level near collar region and girdling the basal portion of the stem&nbsp;and lesions developed by basidiospores of Thanatephorus cucumeris which are 2-4 mm in diameter, circular and appear as brown necrotic spots with light brown centre. Cob web like symptoms also noticed hence, the name web blight.</div>

<div>Current Status and Prospect of Web Blight of Cowpea: A Review</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">The production and productivity of urdbean ranks lower in India as compared to the that of world average due to the biotic and abiotic constraints. Web blight of Urdbean is caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn and is a soil borne pathogen and initial inoculums come mainly from soil splashes which fall on leaves during heavy rains. Respective optimum temperature and relative humidity i.e. 26&ndash;28oC and 90&ndash;100% favours disease development chronically. The pathogen can survive very longer in the absence of a host either as sclerotia or thick walled brown hyphae in plants debris. Currently the disease is prevalent in many countries across the globe. The pathogen is highly variable in terms of its pathogenicity, culture, morphology, biochemical and molecular characteristics. The severity of this disease is directly linked with the population of viable sclerotia in the soil. Yield losses due to this disease vary in between 20-30% depending upon prevailing conditions.</div>

Urdbean web blight and its management strategies- A review

Web blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani causes huge yield loses in urdbean (Vigna mungo). All the commercially grown varieties are susceptible. Hence, more than ten fungicides were evaluated as foliar sprays during kharif season 2005, 2007-2010 using susceptible variety UL 338. &nbsp;Two foliar sprays of fungicides, namely; hexaconazole 5EC (Contaf 5EC)@ 0.1%, difenconazole 25EC (Score 25EC) @ 0.05%, carbendazim 50WP (Bavastin 50WP) @ 0.1% and propiconazole 25EC &nbsp;(Tilt 25EC) @ 0.1% &nbsp;significantly reduced the disease severity resulting in &nbsp;81.1, 80.6, 65.9 and 76.2% control over unsprayed &nbsp;check with corresponding mean yield of &nbsp;872, 821, 791 and 754 kg/ha compared with the mean yield of 584 kg /ha in unsprayed control . The net benefit for the two foliar sprays of &nbsp;hexaconazole 5EC, difenconazole 25EC, &nbsp;propiconazole 25EC and carbendazim 50WP and chlorthalonil 50WP, has been worked out to be Rs.10229, 6891, 6375, 4524 and 3274, respectively for the crop grown for the grain purpose (@Rs. 4300/q) &nbsp;with the cost: benefit ratio of 5.8, 3.1, 2.6, 4.0 and 1.8, respectively. In the crop, grown for the breeder seed purpose (Rs.12000/q), the net profit for foliar sprays of hexaconazole 5EC, difenconazole 25EC, propiconazole 25EC, carbendazim 50WP and chlorthanonil was worked out to be Rs.32405, 25140, 17616, 22614 and 16980 respectively with cost: benefit ratio of 16.0, 8.6, 7.3, 11.2 and 4.9, respectively. &nbsp;The same trend was observed for foundation and certified seed also. The fungicides were effective in reducing the severity of powdery mildew also.&nbsp; 
&nbsp;

Fungicidal management of web blight of urdbean caused by Rhizoctonia solani 
&nbsp;

<div>Background: Mungbean (Vigna radiata&nbsp;L. Wilzeck) is one of the most important pulse crops and grown in almost all parts of the India. Web blight/wet root rot disease of mungbean is caused by Rhizoctonia solani K&uuml;hn. Crop environmental factors plays a vital role in the development of web blight disease caused by R. solani. An understanding of the role of environmental factors on the infection and survival of the pathogen is necessary to develop disease management practices. 
 
Methods: The effect of different temperatures (4oC, 20oC, 25oC, 30oC and 35oC) on mycelial growth of seven different R. solani isolates belonging to different anastomosis group were evaluated under in vitro conditions. Effect of different temperatures on the development of root rot/web blight disease of mungbean was also evaluated under phytotron conditions at various temperatures with constant relative humidity (85%) and illumination (alternate dark and light period of 12 h). Effect of temperatures on the expression of selected pathogenicity related genes was evaluated through real time PCR. 
 
Result: Maximum radial growth in R. solani isolates was observed at 25 and 30oC after 48 hrs of incubation. Maximum disease incidence was observed with R. solani isolate RUPU-18 (73.11%) followed by R-17 (68.75%), RDLM-1 (63.45%) at 25oC on mungbean genotype Pusa Vishal. Expression of genes like ABC transporter was observed only at 35oC, while other genes like 1, 3 glucan hydrolase expressed maximum at 25oC after 24, 48 and 72 hrs post inoculation. Present study suggested that the expression of pathogenicity related genes in mungbean-R. solani system is dependent on the temperature and time interval post pathogen inoculation.</div>

<div>Influence of Temperature on the Pathogenesis and Gene Expression of Rhizoctonia solani Causing Web Blight/Wet Root Rot Disease in Mungbean</div>

<div>Background: Aerial blight (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn) and Anthracnose/pod blight (Colletotrichum truncatum) are important soybean diseases, affect most of the present varieties with varying intensity, in India. There are also few reports of resistance against both the diseases.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: To identify resistance, a set of 121 diverse soybean genotypes including six susceptible checks i.e. JS 93-05, JS 335, JS 72-280, Punjab 1, RKS 18 and VLS 58 were evaluated under high disease pressure field conditions during 2017, 2018 and 2019. Moreover, assessment of yield losses due to these diseases were also worked out in highly infected plants of susceptible checks. 
 
Result: It was observed that aerial blight (0.0-46.8 per cent) and anthracnose/pod blight (0.0-56.2 per cent) were affected soybean genotypes from R1 to R7 and V3 to R7 stages, respectively. The genotypes responded differently and showed absolute resistance to susceptible reaction. Out of 121 genotypes, only five genotypes i.e. JS 20-57, JSM 222, MACS 1407, PS 1611 and Cat 2126 B were found to be highly resistant against both the diseases. Per cent pod and yield losses were significantly correlated with varying severity of aerial blight (0.966** and 0.995**) and anthracnose/pod blight (0.957** and 0.995**), respectively. However, the highest yield loss of 41.0 and 64.8 per cent were recorded on 55.6 and 75.2 per cent disease index (at 90 days) of aerial blight and anthracnose/pod blight, respectively.</div>

<div>Identification of Sources of Resistance and Yield Loss Assessment for Aerial Blight and Anthracnose/Pod Blight Diseases in Soybean</div>

<div>Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is high value oilseed crop grown throughout the world as well as in few soybean growing pockets in India. The hot and humid weather conditions during the soybean cropping season favours the attack by various fungal, bacterial and viral diseases, thereby lowering the crop productivity. Rhizoctonia aerial blight or web blight disease, caused by Rhizoctonia solani is considered one of the most economically important disease of soybean in India. It causes yields losses ranging from 35-60% which might reach a devastating level of 80% under favourable environmental conditions. In India, the disease has been reported from most of the soybean growing states of Uttrakhand, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Assam. Epidemiological studies prove to be very important in managing the disease as the disease severity highly depends on the weather variables prevailing in the growing season. The present review has attempted to compile findings on this devastating disease of soybean crops, its prevalence in the country, epidemiological studies and strategies on integrated disease management.</div>

Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight of Soybean, its Prevalence and Epidemiology: A Review

This experimental study was conducted to identify the impact of web-education on knowledge gain and symbolic adoption of farmers in six village of Tamil Nadu using expost-facto research design. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) website (www.tnau.ac.in) was selected as a learning module for experiment. Totally one hundred and eighty respondents were selected for this study. The respondents were expected to have a minimum educational qualification of fifth standard and above because web-education required basic literacy for better learning. More than half of the farmers (77.78%) were not aware of any single agricultural web sites, followed by one-third of the farmers (15.00%) aware of up to two agricultural web sites. &nbsp;About (5.00%) of the farmers had awareness of 3 to 5 agricultural websites. &nbsp;Least percentage of farmers (2.22%) were found with awareness of more than five agricultural web sites. Two -third of the farmers (72.50%) had internet connection for non-agricultural usage, followed by (27.50%) of the farmers for agricultural purpose. Among the web site users, about two-fifth (77.50 %) of the farmers were found to use the website once in a week followed by (22.50%) with once in two days and none of them used it daily. The study revealed that respondents were more satisfied and eager to learn through web-education. This indicates that they were inclined towards accepting cyber extension approaches.

Awareness about agricultural web education technology at&nbsp;farmer&rsquo;s level - An experimental study

<div style="text-align: justify;">Onion (Allium cepa) is one of the most important crop grown throughout the world. Onion suffers from many diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and abiotic factors. Among them fungal diseases stemphylium blight is the most serious and devastating disease of onion limiting the quality and quantity of both bulb and seed. The present review is mainly focused on variability associated with Stemphylium vesicarium and its integrated management. Variability studies are important to document the changes occurring in the population and individuals with variability in morphological, cultural and pathogenic characteristics so as to breed the varieties with durable resistance to the stemphylium blight of onion andidentification of source of resistance against the range of virulence present in the pathogen population. Further, management of stemphylium blight of onion through fungicide application is feasible, however, long term usage of fungicides has led to the resistance development in pathogens besides hazardous environmental consequences associated with their use. The most efficient and economical method to mitigate the menace of this disease is therefore, integrated disease management (IDM) approach where other non-chemical ecofriendly management strategies are integrated with chemical methods in order to manage the diseases more efficiently with reduced use of chemicals. Among non-chemical ecofriendly management strategies biological control is gaining interest as an alternative or complement to chemical treatment of the disease. The present review paper deals with distribution, symptomatology, pathogenicity, variability and integrated management.&nbsp;</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Stemphylium Blight of Onion: A Review</div>

<div>Background: Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp] is one of the primary grain legume crops grown in India for its high quality vegetable protein, animal feed and fodder. It is affected by various fungal and viral diseases. Among these, leaf blight caused by Alternaria alternata is one of the most destructive diseases and recently the disease of minor importance becomes major one in Tamil Nadu. Use of resistant cultivar is the most effective, economically viable and eco-friendly tool for combating the plant diseases. The micronutrients play a key role in many physiological and biochemical functions of the plants which influences plant pathogenic interaction. The micronutrients viz., Zn.Mn,Cu and Fe found to have greater impact on reducing the plant disease severity. Developing integrated disease management strategy involving disease resistant variety, micronutrient and fungicide application would be the best sustainable method for controlling the pigeonpea leaf blight. 
 
Methods: Twenty four pigeonpea genotypes along with two local varieties viz., CO5 and CO6 were evaluated in the field for their resistance against Alternaria alternata leaf blight disease, consecutively for three years from 2015-16 to 2017-18 using the disease resistance scale ranging from 0 to 9. Field experiments were also conducted for three consecutive Kharif season from 2015 to 2018 to evaluate the efficacy of the foliar application of different micronutrients and combination fungicide viz., carbendazim 12% + mancozeb 63% on the incidence of leaf blight disease.&nbsp; 
 
Result: A total of 24 pigeonpea genotypes were screened for their resistance against leaf blight under field condition. Among these, four genotypes viz., BDN2, IPA 8F, IPA 15F and MA6 were found resistance and nine genotypes were moderately resistant and remaining 11 genotypes showed susceptible reaction to leaf blight. The results of the field experiment on micronutrient and fungicide application revealed that foliar spraying of MnSO 4 @0.2% on 30 days after sowing and carbendazim 12%+ mancozeb 63%@ 1g / lit on 45 days after sowing recorded the lowest leaf blight incidence of 8.1 PDI (Per cent Disease Index) with the highest disease reduction of 76.9% as against 35 PDI in the untreated control plot. The above treatments also recorded the highest grain yield of 905 kg/ ha as against 703 kg/ in the untreated control.</div>

<div>Management of Alternaria Leaf Blight in Pigeonpea through Host Plant Resistance and Micronutrient Application</div>

Background: The anthracnose/pod blight disease caused by Colletotrichum species, is considered as a major limitation in soybean cultivation worldwide, causing significant yield losses. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of soybean anthracnose/pod blight in different geographical locations of Uttarakhand and to identify the Colletotrichum species associated with the disease. 
 
Methods: Roving survey was carried out in various soybean growing areas of Uttarakhand, covering 82 villages in 11 districts during kharif 2017 to 2019. In order to record the prevalence of the disease, incidence and severity were recorded periodically in soybean fields. From different surveyed locations, samples of anthracnose and pod blight were collected, isolated and identified on the basis of genetic analysis of the ITS region of rDNA. 
 
Result: The survey study revealed that disease was evident in all surveyed districts of Uttarakhand except district Haridwar. The pooled mean incidence and severity of pod blight infection in different districts ranged from 3.96 to 27.0 per cent and 2.04 to 15.69 per cent, respectively, maximum in the U. S. Nagar district and minimum in the Almora district. It was observed that disease incidence and severity decreased with rises in altitude with highly significant negative correlation of -0.89 and -0.89, respectively. Three distinct Colletotrichum species i.e., C. truncatum, C. cliviae (=C. cliviicola) and C. chlorophyti were identified through molecular characterization of the ITS-5.8S rDNA region (BLASTn queries), which were associated with soybean anthracnose/pod blight disease in Uttarakhand.

Distribution and Identification of Colletotrichum Species Associated with Soybean Anthracnose/Pod Blight in Different Geographical Locations of Uttarakhand