<div>Background: Elastic stable intramedullary nailing has become a widely accepted, standard surgical technique for the repair of long bone diaphyseal fractures in children and adolescents however, references for its use in veterinary practice are still rare.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on ten clinical cases, selected randomly irrespective of their age, sex and breeds; diagnosed with long bone diaphyseal fractures. Titanium elastic intramedullary nailing was performed in all the cases. Clinical, orthopaedic and radiographic examinations were performed pre-operatively, just after surgery and at 15th, 30th and 60th post-operative days.&nbsp; 
 
Result: There was an increase in the mean weight bearing score during standing and walking from 0th day to 60th post-operative day. Post-operative radiographic examinations revealed increase in the mean values of bone formation score and bone union scores. The nails were removed easily in all the cases on 60th post-operative day. Five cases had complications; delayed wound healing (n=1) and slight nail migration from insertion site (n=4) which were managed conservatively and by cutting the extra lengths of the migrated nails. The clinical outcome on the basis of functional limb usage was excellent in seven cases, good in two cases and fair in one case. Overall, titanium elastic stable intramedullary nailing had good efficacy with respect to weight bearing in dogs without any systemic adverse effect.</div>

Titanium Elastic Stable Intramedullary Nailing for the Repair of Long Bone Fractures in Dogs

<div>Background: Femur fractures are common in immature dogs. As compared to stainless steel, titanium implants are lighter and allow controlled micro-motion at the site of fracture that stimulates early callus formation by limiting stress shielding. Cited literature reports successful clinical use of titanium elastic nails for the stabilization of long bone fractures in young human patients; however, there is paucity of information on this technique is dogs. This study was planned with an objective to compare titanium elastic nails (TENS) and single end-threaded pin for the management of femoral fractures in young dogs. 
 
Methods: The study included 20 clinical cases (10 male and 10 female) of dogs suffering from distal femoral fracture with a mean&plusmn;SD age of 5.70&plusmn;5.60 month, body weight 11.09&plusmn;4.48 kg since 3.05&plusmn;2.35 days. The cases were divided into 2 groups; using TENS (n=10; group 1) and stainless steel end-threaded intramedullary pin (n=10; group 2).&nbsp; 
 
Result: Group 1 dogs demonstrated better fracture reduction score, early and uniform callus and better implant stability as compared to group 2, radiographically. Early weight bearing and minimum postoperative complications with better functional outcome including joint mobility was reported in group 1. In conclusions, TENS is superior fracture fixation technique for the repair of supracondylar or distal third femur fractures in young dogs with better functional outcome, minimal stiffness of stifle joint and early weight bearing, in comparison to single end threaded intramedullary pin.</div>

Comparison of Titanium Elastic Nailing and End-threaded Intramedullary Pinning for Distal Femoral Fractures in Young Dogs

<div>Background: Radius-ulna is the most frequently fractured bone of the pectoral limb in dogs with high predisposition to distal fractures. The smaller size of the distal fragment and open physis restrict the use of rigid fracture fixation techniques in distal fractures of growing dogs. Titanium elastic nails (TENs) are recommended in medical practice to stabilize long bone fractures in children. There is paucity of literature on TENs for the repair of radius-ulna fractures in dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: This clinical study enrolled 10 dogs (7 grey hound and one each of Crossbred, Pomerenarian and Siberian Husky) suffering from distal radius-ulna (6 transverse and 4 short oblique) fractures since a mean&plusmn;SD duration of 3.40&plusmn;4.5 days. The mean&plusmn;SD age and body weight of the dogs was 12.60&plusmn;6.45 months and 14.09&plusmn;6.41 kg, respectively. All except one fracture was stabilized with two TENs inserted into the medullary canal of radial bone in a normograde manner from distal to proximal end using open cranio-lateral surgical approach.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Majority fractures achieved satisfactory reduction (n=8), radiographically. Weight bearing scores on walking increased gradually from day 12 (1.62&plusmn;1.51) to 45th (2.57&plusmn;1.51), day 60th (3.75&plusmn;0.5) and day 90 (4.0&plusmn;0). Five dogs had uneventful recovery whereas remaining had major (n=2) or minor (n=3) complications. The length of the operated bone was non-significantly lesser as compared to contralateral healthy bone on day 60. Goniometric assessment of carpal joint of operated limb showed restricted range of motion on day 12 that improved to the near normal as contralateral healthy limb on day 60. Long-term results showed full (9) and acceptable (1) functional outcome. In conclusions, the TENs technique is simple and less invasive alternative fixation technique for distal radius-ulna fractures in young and light weighing dogs. As per authors, this is the first report on the use of TENs for the management of radius-ulna fracture in dogs.&nbsp;</div>

Titanium Elastic Nails for Distal Radius-ulna Fractures in Young Dogs

Background: Femur fractures from multifactorial etiologies are a common occurrence in young and growing dogs. Various methods of internal fixation are available to repair young femur fractures but titanium elastic nails (TENs) are superior in stabilizing such fractures. Micromotion at the fracture site by these nails limits stress shielding and stimulates for early callus formation. TENs nails have been used in children but fewer studies are conducted in immature dogs in the recent years. The objective of this study was the clinical evaluation of TENs technique in femur fracture fixation among young dogs. 
 
Methods: This study included 16 clinical cases of young (&lt;2 months) dogs (12 male and 4 female) with mean &plusmn; SD age of 5.19&plusmn;2.83 month, body weight 7.46&plusmn;5.07 Kg injured since 2.93&plusmn;2.14 days and associated with vehicular accident, fall from height, hit injury with stick and unknown injury with femur fractures. TENs technique was applied in all the classes and postoperative clinical evaluation was done. 
 
Result: All the cases resulted in satisfactory functional outcome based on radiographically visible early bridging callus&nbsp; with mean radiographic fracture healing score of 2.43&plusmn;0.18, better fracture union (bone union score: 1.37&plusmn;0.24 and bone formation score: 2.25&plusmn;0.19), early weight bearing (standing: 2.43&plusmn;0.28 days, walking: 4.93&plusmn;0.39 days, pain perception score (1.62&plusmn;0.12) and ambulation with weight bearing score: 2.5&plusmn;0.12 (standing) and 3.00&plusmn;0.22 (walking), respectively on 15th&nbsp;postoperative day, in affected dogs with no major complications. Therefore, TENs technique provides an adequate repair of diaphyseal and supracondylar femur fractures in young dogs with better postoperative outcome. 
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Evaluation of Titanium Elastic Nails for Femoral Fractures in Young Dogs: A Clinical Study

This research aims to study the management of water demand in different product markets in downstream lands of Yengejeh Dam in Neyshabur. This is an exploration research survey and library study conducted in 2015-2016. The required information to test the research hypotheses was gathered by questionnaire. The statistical population includes 150 wheat farmers randomly selected &nbsp;A scenario of increasing the elasticity of product demand in resource allocation in the competitive and monopolar water market was developed by assimilation algorithm in the studied region. According to the market situation of water in the region which is almost similar to monopoly water market, the results suggest that wheat farming can be superseded by farming some other trade and export-oriented crops. This brings about an increasing amount of product and yield per hectare of land with using less water supply and less area under cultivation.

Water demand management in different structures of agriculture product market (A case study of Coastal Lands of Yengejeh Dam)

Background: The process of production involves converting the raw material resources into the finished product and these resources possess the cost, which needs to be optimised with the better utilization and allocation of the resources. Farms with the best resource utilisation have more chances to gain the economics of scale therefore it is necessary to study the allocative and productive efficiency of the different farm sizes in the study area. 
 
Methods: The field survey was conducted at Tehsil Jubbal and Kotkhai of Shimla district where data from 200 Apple-producing farming households of different farm sizes was collected with the help of a questionnaire. The collected data was analysed with the use of the Cobb-Douglas production function to analyze the resource use efficiency of different farm sizes. 
 
Result: The study indicates that in the case of marginal farms in Kotkhai Tehsil, land, labour and manures and fertilizers were found to be statistically significant at the 5% and 10% probability levels. However, for marginal farms in Jubbal Tehsil, the production elasticity of factor inputs such as land and manures and fertilizers is positive, while labour and seeds show a negative elasticity, although these results are not statistically significant. The MVP (Marginal Value Product) of land, labour, seeds and other inputs is statistically less than unity for small, marginal and medium farms in both Kotkhai and Jubbal Tehsils. This suggests that farmers are utilizing these resources beyond their optimal capacity. Additionally, the MVP of manures and fertilizers is negative for small and medium farms in both Tehsils, indicating that reducing their usage would lead to higher returns. 
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Economics of Apple Production in Different Farm Size: A Comparative Study of Jubbal and Kotkhai Tehsil of District Shimla

<div>Background: Historical records and increased scientific consensus provide strong evidence that the global climate is changing. Future climate change would lead to an increase in climate variability and the frequency and intensity of extreme events.&nbsp; Agriculture that is dependent on climate conditions is inherently sensitive to climate changes. Today&rsquo;s world agriculture has gone through challenges from population growth and has adapted to changing economic conditions, technology and resource availabilities. But uncertainty remains concerning the ability of agricultural systems to adapt to climate change. Thus, climate change adaptation of the essence for a resilient food crop production system requires economic transformation by arrangement of institutional and technology. 
 
Methods: This study uses the Ricardian model to examine the economic impact of climate change on agriculture in Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia. The net farm revenue is regressed against climate variable (temperature and precipitation), soil and socio-economic variables to help determine the factors that influence variability in net farm revenues. The study was based on the data from a survey of 400 smallholder farming households interviewed across the zone. 
&nbsp;&nbsp; 
Result: The Ricardian model analysis shows the coefficients of summer, autumn and winter temperature are positive whereas the coefficient of spring temperature is negative. Regarding the precipitation, the coefficients of summer and spring precipitation are positive while coefficients of autumn and winter precipitation are negative. The marginal impact analysis results show an increase in summer and spring temperatures has mostly negative effects on net farm revenues implying that further temperature increases would be harmful to agricultural activities while increases in autumn temperatures increase net farm revenues in the study area. The summer and spring precipitation would increase the net farm revenue but the autumn precipitation reduces the farm revenue. The elasticity results show that net farm revenues are highly sensitive to changes in climate and the elasticity is relatively high for both summer temperature and precipitation. The impacts of climate change under the three special Reports on Emission Scenarios, (Canadian General Circulation Model, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and Parallel Climate Model) predicted that by 2100 net farm revenues would decrease across all farms per hectare by US$ 942.83, US$ 1048.16 and US$ 1024.32 respectively. The finding suggests there is a great need for the concerned bodies to provide up-to-date information about climate change and rainfall patterns in the forthcoming season so that the farmers make informed decisions and develop adaptation strategies.</div>

Economic Impact of Climate Change on Food Crop Production using Ricardina Approach: A Case of Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia

<div style="text-align:justify">
Background: Skin is a versatile organ, which is extremely important for protection, perception, water regulation and wound healing. The skin of goat is considered extremely durable used by the tannery Industry to make rugs and carpet binding. 
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Methods: The present study was conducted on the skin of goats of either sex to study the age wise changes in the histomorphology, histochemistry and histoenzymology of dermis. The skin samples were collected from Nagpur Muncipal Corporation Slaughter house immediately after natural death and subsequently processed and stained for histological, histochemical and histoenzymic studies. The total of 220 samples, 20 each from different body regions namely dorsal neck, lateral neck, ventral neck, dorsal thorax, lateral thorax, ventral thorax, dorsal abdomen, lateral abdomen, ventral abdomen, lateral thigh and medial thigh were collected. The animals were divided into two groups, viz. six to twelve month of age (Gr I) and above one year age (Gr II). 
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Result: It was observed that the dermis was composed of collagen, elastic, reticular fibers, cells of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands and arrector pili muscles in all body regions in Gr I as well as in Gr II. The dermis was divided into thin superficial papillary layer and a thick deep reticular layer. The dermal papillae were the upward projections of superficial papillary layer between epidermal pegs. In reticular layer, fibroblasts were larger, while in papillary layer, fibroblasts were thin long, compressed and spindle shaped. The collagen fibers were more in number as compared to other fibers in dermis and they were densely arranged in papillary layer and parallel with the skin surface below the epidermis. The elastic fibers were present in between the collagen fibers around the blood vessels and hair follicles. The arteriovenous shunt was found surrounded by capsule of connective tissue consisting of smooth muscle cells. The more number of hair follicles at deep part of papillary layer and few follicles were present in reticular layer. The hair follicle composed of outer root sheath, inner root sheath, cortex and medulla. The depth of primary hair follicle increased with the advancement of age. Moderate PAS positive activity was noted in the papillary layer, while it was weak to moderate in reticular layer. The reticular layer of the dermis showed moderate Sudan black B activity for the presence of lipid than the papillary layer. The mild acid phosphatase activity was seen in the papillary and reticular layer of dermis, while moderate acid phosphatase activity was noticed in the blood vessels. A mild alkaline phosphatase activity was present in dermis in Gr I and Gr II. 
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Conclusion: The present study would form a baseline data on the histomorphology, histochemistry and histoenzymology of skin of goat which would be helpful in future research prospective.
</div>

Histomorphological, Histochemical and Histoenzymic Studies on the Dermis of Skin of Goat (Capra hircus)

Development of goat spleen at various stages of gestation was studied. Primordium of spleen was observed on 46th day of gestation in close proximity to the developing rumen. All the parameters viz. length, width, thickness and weight were increased with advancement of age. Differentiating capsule and trabeculae were noticed on 69th day and 102th days of gestation, respectively. Reticular, collagen and elastic fibers were noticed at 60, 55 and 124 days of gestation, respectively. Red and white pulp was not fully differentiated till term.&nbsp;

Morphological and cytological differentiation of goat spleen (Capra hircus)

<div style="text-align: justify;">The present study was designed to elucidate the histomorphology of the testis of adult Zovawk. In the present study, the collagen and reticular fibres were abundant in tunica albuginea and interstitial tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules. However, few elastic fibers occurred in the capsule and only in the blood vessels of both the testis in Zovawk. The different micrometrical values with regard to thickness of testicular capsule, diameter of seminiferous tubule, height of seminiferous tubule, number of leydig cells, spermatogonia, germs cells per mm2 were found to be higher in the left testicle as compared to right one. There was no-significant difference observed in the right and left testes of Zovawk.</div>