<div>Background: While Indian agriculture has achieved significant improvement in terms of major food crops, the performance of oilseed crops has lagged behind that of food grains. In the last 30 years, the acreage and production of oilseed crops have increased dramatically. Groundnut, soybean, sesame, rapeseed, mustard and castor seed are the six major oilseeds in India. In case of other oilseeds such as linseed, cottonseed, sunflower, safflower and Nigerseed are taken in, the total area occupied by oilseeds reaches roughly 20% of the net cultivated area. 
 
Methods: The study was based on primary data sources. Raigarh district was selected purposively because it contributed highest area of groundnut. In the Raigarh district Baramkela block selected for further study. Respondent were selected according to proportionate sampling criteria (10 per cent) in the study area. For the analysis of the cost of cultivation, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) method was used. 
 
Result: The study was conducted for analysis of cost and return of groundnut in Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh. The study was found groundnut is major growing oilseed in the Raigarh district. The overall cost of cultivation was observed at 50374.09 Rs. per hectare. The total cost of cultivation shows increasing with farm size. The cost per quintal groundnut production was observed 3159.47 Rs. The overall gross return and net return of groundnut were estimated at 75451.38 Rs. per hectare and 28010.10 Rs. hectare. The overall input-output ratio for the above cost was found to be 1:1.50.&nbsp;</div>

Cost and Return Analysis of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Cultivation in Raigarh District of Chhattisgarh

<div>Background: The study was undertaken in the East Champaran district of Bihar, where over one-third of the population is at risk of floods. To improve the socio-economic situation of tulsi farmers, the study analyzed the input profile, the link between cost and return and the impact of input cost on tulsi output and returns. 
 
Methods: Under Aroma Mission, during 2024 CSIR-CIMAP demonstrated the tulsi cultivation in East Champaran Motihari district of Bihar on 32 beneficiaries from seven villages and adopts improved practices of tulsi cultivation towards higher yield. The study was predominantly based on primary data collected through field visit and through personal interview method from the all aroma mission beneficiary. To achieve the objectives of the study, the cost and returns for tulsi cultivation was worked out based on commission for agricultural costs and prices (CACP) cost concept and determine the input-output relationship as well as multiple regression analysis.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The cost of cultivation is to be ₹ 35093/- for the tulsi crop. The gross income ₹ 106000/- per for three months. The farm business income, which considers initial costs (Cost A1/A2) is 82316/- per hectare. The farm Investment Income is ₹ 70907/- accounting for more comprehensive cost structures (Cost C3). The benefit-cost ratio is observed to be highest (1:3.47) at Cost A1 and the lowest benefit-cost ratio was observed at Cost C3 (1:2.02). The regression model explains 0.878 (88 per cent) of tulsi crop production variation, with human charges, seed cost and distillation charges showing significance. However, it is suggested that from this study tulsi cultivation model can be promoted in others part of the country, where problematic areas for improve their social and economic life changes.</div>

Cost and Return Analysis of Tulsi Cultivation in East Champaran District of Bihar State

Background: The basic challenge every farmer in India faces is to increase profitability level and minimize the cost. For this, it is essential to know how the cost of cultivation and profitability is changing of crops over a period of time. The present study attempted to estimate the cost of cultivation, cost of production and returns of major pulse crops in the Rajasthan state. For workout the economics of pulses crop, secondary data was collected from 2000-01 to 2021-22 which is compiled from various sources and publications for profitability analysis of pulse crop. 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in Rajasthan state and analysis done for 22 years used the &ldquo;Cost of Cultivation of Principal Crops in Rajasthan&rdquo; by DES, New Delhi uses different cost concepts for estimating costs and returns. In the present study, the cost C2 was considered for computing profitability. Cost C2 in CCPC data covers all the variables and fixed costs. 
 
Result:&nbsp; The actual cost of production of gram crop increased from Rs. 1772.32 per quintal in TE 2003 to Rs. 3650.5 per quintal in TE 2021. Return per rupee invested increased from 2.52 to 3.01 during TE 2003 to TE 2021. Cost of production of urad crop had increased from Rs. 2520.63 per quintal in TE 2003 to Rs. 7385.45 per quintal in TE 2021. The return per rupee invested in cost A2 had reduced from 2.14 in TE 2003 to 1.99 in TE 2021. Moong crop also showed increasing trend for cost of production from Rs. 2696.08 per quintal in TE 2003 to Rs. 7385.45 per quintal in TE 2021. Return for each rupee invested a increased from 2.10 in TE 2003 to 2.14 in TE 2021. Return per rupee invested was not profitable for the farmers for urad. Therefore, proper processing and procurement policy for these crops grown by the farmers should be implemented. Urad crop need more efficiently technological breakthrough to reduce cost of production and proper price incentive to pace with other pulses crops in the state.

Cost of Cultivation is Rising or Profitability Rising for Major Pulse Crop? A Case from Rajasthan, India

<div>Background: Dendrobiums are most popular high value cut flowers which require special attention during cultivation. In Assam, Dendrobium orchids are normally grown under iron frame shade net houses which are quite vulnerable to cold injury during extreme winter period and heavy rain during monsoon period. Further, the existing structures are very costly which is not affordable by small and marginal farmers of Assam. Keeping in view the current study was aimed to evaluate a suitable low cost protected structure for commercial cultivation of Dendrobium cv. Sonia under Assam condition.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: An experiment was conducted in the Horticulture Experimental Farm, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, during 2018-2019 which was laid out in factorial completely randomized design with 10 treatment combinations replicated five times. The first factors comprised 5 numbers of low cost protected structures viz., G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5. The second factors comprised T1-1 tier and T2-2 tiers. 
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Result: The results revealed that among the protected structures, healthy growth and better quality flowers were obtained under G1 (Bamboo frame structure covered with fixed 200 micron UV film with top ventilated and 50% agro shade net as ceiling) protected structure followed by G4. Between the tiers, T2 was found to be superior in respect of the growth characters as well as most of the flower characters. So, this treatment combination is merits consideration for commercial growers of Assam to bring about timely and quality flower production of Dendrobium cv. Sonia.</div>

Evaluation of Low Cost Protected Structure for Commercial Cultivation of Dendrobium Cv. Sonia under Assam Condition

Aquaponics represents a revolutionary approach to sustainable agriculture, combining aquaculture and hydroponics in an integrated system that maximizes resource efficiency while minimizing environmental impact. This comprehensive review examines the development and implementation of cost-effective automated aquaponics systems utilizing Arduino-based technologies for enhanced legume cultivation and sprout production. The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, automated control systems and energy-efficient technologies has transformed traditional aquaponics into smart farming solutions capable of optimizing nutrient delivery, water quality management and environmental conditions. Recent advances in microcontroller technologies, particularly Arduino and ESP32 platforms, have enabled the development of affordable monitoring and control systems that can maintain optimal growing conditions while reducing operational costs. This review synthesizes current research on automated aquaponics systems, focusing on their application in legume and sprout production, technological infrastructure requirements, energy harvesting solutions and the nutritional benefits of sprouted legumes. The analysis reveals significant potential for Arduino-based systems to enhance productivity, improve resource utilization and contribute to sustainable food production systems. Key challenges identified include system scalability, energy management and the need for standardized protocols for different crop types. Future research directions emphasize the development of AI-driven control systems, renewable energy integration and optimization of nutrient cycling for specific legume varieties. 
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Cost-effective Automated Aquaponics Systems using Arduino: Enhancing Legume Cultivation, Sprout Growth, Nutrient Content and Sustainable Production: A Review

<div style="text-align: justify;">The present study for comparison of aromatic crop tulsi (Ocimum basilicum) and cereal crop paddy (Orzya sativa) cultivation has been carried out at farmers&rsquo; field of Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh. The tulsi is an essential oil bearing plant. Oil of this plant is highly valuable and is used in flavour, cosmetic and pharmaceuticals industry. Paddy has been cultivated in our country as a major food grain crop since long time. During the study period 50 farmers under cultivating tulsi and paddy has been selected from Sitapur District of Uttar Pradesh. The primary data were collected from the selected farmer&rsquo;s field on profitability comparison between tulsi and paddy cultivation. Simple statistical tools and technique has been used for data analysis of the socio-economic profile, cost of cultivation, profitability. It has been observed during the study that tulsi gives higher returns over paddy. However, the input cost of paddy is higher than tulsi crop but the net return of tulsi was more profitable than paddy. The benefit cost ratio has been observed 2.70 and 1.34 of tulsi and paddy respectively. It is suggested from the study that maximum profit is generated through tulsi cultivation followed by paddy crop. This study can set an example of profitability model for entrepreneurship development in other part of country.</div>

Comparative economic study of tulsi and paddy cultivation in Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh

<div>Background: Sorghum is a heat and drought resistant crop that is widely grown in arid and semi-arid regions for food, feed and bio-energy. The sorghum crop is important to the majority of farmers for income, nutritional security and environmental sustainability. They grow sorghum not for profit, but because it is the only crop that can withstand the harsh climatic conditions that exist. The present study aimed to investigate the economics of sorghum in the Bhilwara district of Rajasthan during the year 2020-21 using primary data from 60 sample households from four different villages. 
 
Methods: The standard cost concept method of the Commission for Agricultural Cost and Price (CACP) was used to calculate the cost of cultivation (COC) of sorghum crop. It includes Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B1, Cost B2, Cost C1, Cost C2 and Cost C3. Farm income measures, which include gross income, farm business income, family labour income and net income, are used to determine crop profitability and return on investment. 
 
Result: The results of study revealed that total cost (Cost C2) of sorghum cultivation per ha was found to be ₹ 25149.69. The cost of producing one quintal of sorghum was calculated to be ₹ 1383.18. Sorghum cultivation generated a net income, farm business income and family labour income of ₹ 23658.44, ₹ 30680.32 and ₹ 26527.74 per ha, respectively.</div>

Cost and Return Analysis of Kharif&nbsp;Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in Bhilwara District, Rajasthan

Background: The present study was conducted with the objective to study the economics of pineapple cultivation in Assam and to identify the constraints limiting its production and marketing so that suitable measures can be suggested to address the existing gaps hindering its growth. 
 
Methods: A multistage sampling technique was used to select 100 pineapple growers from Dima Hasao and Karbi Anglong districts of Assam. For cost estimation, the budgeting techniques and cost concepts were followed, while, Garrett ranking technique was followed for studying the constraints faced by producers. 
 
Result: The per hectare total cost of cultivation on average was worked out to be ₹ 242715.79 and was found higher in Group III (₹ 265748.21/ha) as compared to Group II (₹ 242347.12/ha) and Group I (₹ 220052.05/ha). Of the total cost incurred in pineapple cultivation, cost on labour constituted the major cost item across all farm groups and accounted about 71.11 per cent of the total cost, implying pineapple cultivation to be labour intensive. The per hectare average yield of the fruit in the study area was 19.16 tonnes and the highest net income of&nbsp;&nbsp;₹ 117459.75 per hectare was obtained by group III, followed by group II (₹ 76033.69/ha) and group I (₹ 34746.10/ha). The benefit cost ratio on average was 1.13, indicating pineapple cultivation in the state to be economically viable. The major production constraints reported were damage of fruits by rodents, lack of finance and high labour cost while low price of fruit during glut, lack of cold storage and processing unit and lack of proper connectivity linking production clusters to market were major marketing constraints reported by the producers in the study area. 
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Economics and Constraint Analysis of Pineapple Cultivation in Assam

<div>Background: The place of pulses in agricultural production and in human diet is very important. India is a leading pulse growing country in the world. In 2016, India&rsquo;s contribution to world&rsquo;s area was around 38 per cent, whereas in terms of production, it was 23 per cent. The pulses are the essential part of the cropping system in the Indian farming. The CGRs of area and production of pulses showed a positive sign in India however, it indicated declining trend in Haryana. In the study, an attempt has been made to analyse the economics of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in Haryana.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: For the present study, the data were collected from the chickpea growers out of total 161 farm households from 30 clusters out of most growing area in Haryana state following stratified random sampling technique. The cultivation/production cost of chickpea was calculated as per the standard cost concepts framed by Directorate of Economic and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. In the economic analysis, cost of cultivation, cost of production, costs of various inputs used in production and returns were worked out for different periods from 2004-05 to 2016-17. 
 
Result: The total cost of cultivation worked out was Rs.12163/- and Rs.9241/- for the period x̅-I (2004-05 to 2007-08) and it touched to Rs. 36036/- and Rs.39207/-per ha in the period x̅-IV (2014-15 to 2016-17) for India and Haryana, respectively. On an average 74 and 42 kg/ha seed; 285 and 292 human labour (man hours) were utilized for cultivation of one hectare unit of land. Out of total human labour, about 50 per cent was contributed by farm family itself. The share of fixed and variable cost to the total cost of cultivation was found 59:41 and 44:56 per cent, respectively for India and Haryana. The net profit of chickpea in the study period increased by three times in India and seven times in Haryana. The value of B:C ratio was found more than one in Haryana and India reveals that chickpea cultivation is profitable entity.&nbsp;</div>

Trends and Economic Analysis of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Cultivation in India with Special Reference to Haryana

The present study was emphasized to study cost and return of cultivation, the trend in area yield potential and resource use efficiency of hybrid maize of different categories of farm holdings in Sarguja district of Chhattisgarh. A sample of eighty farmers was surveyed (fourty five marginal, twenty five small and ten large) by three stage stratified random sampling method. The result indicated that cost of labour constituted largest component in total variable cost accounted about( 46.89%) followed by manure and fertilizer cost &nbsp;(37.00 %), followed by seed cost (11.60%). Of all the components of fixed cost, &nbsp;rental value of owned land and depreciation cost constituted maximum share about (81.90%) and (16.50%) respectively. The total cost increased with the increase in size of holdings. The total costs of production of maize per hectare was highest for large farmer of Rs. 32079.54/ha followed by small farmer of Rs. 28794.74/ha followed by small farmers of Rs. 27334/ha. There is excess use of labour by marginal farms. The excess labour may be diverted for cultivation of other crops. Large farmers &nbsp;received higher income due to optimal application of fertilizer. Improvement of farm level efficiency relies on technical knowledge of crop as well as income diversification, institutional capacity building that can enhance assets ownership, extension and credit facility.&nbsp;