<div>Background: The chickpea wilt complex caused by several soil-borne pathogens, is the most destructive disease of chickpea that causes severe losses in yield worldwide. The development of a resistant variety is the most appropriate approach for managing the disease. 
 
Methods: The present investigation was aimed to find out the resistant sources against the wilt complex of chickpea under pot conditions and studies on biochemical characters responsible for disease resistance during rabi 2018-19 and 2019-20 at Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat. 
 
Result: Among the thirty-seven varieties/germplasm of chickpea, the final disease reaction of two years revealed that two varieties/germplasm viz., GJG-6 and GAG-0624 showed a resistant reaction and three varieties/germplasm (GJG-3, Dayadara and Khedbrahma) showed a moderately resistant reaction. The biochemical analysis of the resistant and susceptible varieties/germplasm revealed that healthy roots of resistant and susceptible germplasm showed higher moisture content (85.90-88.42%), while it was lower (74.71-80.22%) in diseased roots. Concerning protein content, the least (32.14%) decrease in protein content was recorded in resistant germplasm, whereas, the highest decrease of 41.79 per cent was recorded in susceptible germplasm. W.r.t. to phenol content, diseased roots of resistant and susceptible germplasm contained higher phenol content compared to healthy roots. Similarly, the minimum per cent decrease in total soluble sugars content (32.14%) was observed in resistant germplasm, while it was highest (41.82%) in susceptible germplasm.</div>

Biochemical Basis of Resistance in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) against Wilt Complex

<div>Background: Chickpea wilt complex caused by several soil-borne pathogens is a serious biotic constraint for chickpea production. 
 
Methods: To find out the effective management of the disease through seed biopriming and soil application of biocontrol agents under in vivo and in vitro conditions experiments were carried out during rabi 2018-19 and 2019-20 at Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat. 
 
Result: Seed biopriming showed a positive impact producing vigorous plant shoot and root system, besides disease control during in vitro conditions. While under in vivo conditions, the pooled results of two years revealed that seed biopriming for 10 h with the suspension of talc-based formulation (2 x 108 CFU/g) of Trichoderma viride or T. asperellum @ 50 g in 250 ml of water/kg of seed followed by soil application of T. viride or T. asperellum enriched FYM (10g/kg FYM) @ 100 g/m2 of soil found significant for the disease management as well as higher yield. The seed biopriming alone control the disease in the range of 23-34% and increased the yield of chickpea by 23-29%. However, combined applications of seed biopriming as well as soil application significantly control the disease in the range of 51-70% and increased the grain yield by 41-51% over untreated control.</div>

<div>Management of Wilt Complex of Chickpea with Seed Biopriming and Soil Application of Trichoderma spp.</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Effectiveness of three biopesticides viz., Biowilt-X (based on Trichoderma harzianum), Bionem-X (based on Pochonia chlamydosporia) and Biocure-X (based on Bacillus subtilis) were tested against wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri), root-knot (Meloidogyne incognita) and the wilt disease complex (F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri + M. incognita) of chickpea (cv. BG-256). The biopesticides were developed by involving novel technology patented in USA and India and were applied to seeds (5 g/kg seed) and soil (40 g/microplot) to evaluate their effectiveness against the target diseases under field conditions. The pesticides viz., carbendazim and nemacur were applied @ 1.25 kg a.i./h and 6.0 kg a.i./h as soil application, and 2g/kg seed as seed treatment. Chickpea grown in the plots infested with pathogens singly or concomitantly developed characteristic wilt and root-knot symptoms, and exhibited significant yield decline. Application of biopesticides checked the severity of the diseases and the resulting yield declines. Application of Biowilt-X decreased the wilt incidence by 60% and promoted the yield of chickpea (46%) grown in F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri infested plots. The biopesticides Bionem-X and Biocure-X were found effective against root-knot disease and suppressed the galling by 20 and 12% and promoted the yield of infected chickpea plants by 28 and 34% in comparison to the control. Application of Biocure-X was found highly effective against the fungus-nematode wilt disease complex; its seed treatment substantially controlled the wilt and root-knot, and increased the yield of concomitantly infected chickpea by 49&deg;C. Biocure-X was found more effective in increasing the nodulation as compared to other treatments. Effect of carbendazim and nemacur was significant (P&lt;0.05) in checking the wilt, root knot and disease complex but were not as effective as biopesticides. The present study has demonstrated that biological management of wilt, root-knot and disease complex can be successfully achieved with the application of the developed biopesticides.</div>

<div style="text-align: justify;">Efficacy of newly developed biopesticides for the management of wilt disease complex of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: Chickpea wilt complex caused by several soil-borne pathogens is the major yield-reducing malady worldwide. Biological control is one of the best, low-cost and ecologically sustainable method for managing plant diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens. 
 
Methods: In this present investigation Panchagavya and Trichoderma spp. were evaluated by following poisoned food technique and dual culture technique against wilt complex causing pathogens i.e. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri, Fusarium solani and Macrophomina phaseolina.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Among the different isolates of Trichoderma spp. evaluated, Trichoderma viride (AAU isolate) was highly antagonistic to F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri (52.78%) and F. solani (65.37%) whereas, Trichoderma asperellum (AAU isolate) was highly antagonistic to M. phaseolina (65.93%). Panchagavya at the highest concentration (50%) showed significantly higher efficacy (80.74, 66.62 and 49.67%) in inhibiting the mycelial growth of all three pathogens and at the lowest concentration it was moderately effective.</div>

​Antagonistic Activity of Panchagavya and Trichoderma spp. against Wilt Complex causing Pathogens of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

&nbsp;

<div>Background: The wilt complex caused by several soil-borne fungal pathogens is a serious threat to chickpea production. Biocontrol with bacterial bioagents is an emerging alternative to chemical control. However, the literature on the biocontrol of wilt complex in chickpea by endophytic bacteria is scarce. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: Experiments were conducted in rabi 2022-23 and 2023-24 under sick plot of Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri and rabi 2023-24 under field conditions to evaluate the effect of endophytic Bacillus subtilis strains TRO4 and CLO5 on biocontrol of wilt complex in chickpea. 
&nbsp; 
Result: The experimental results showed that in sick plots of rabi 2022-23, the seed treatment with chemical fungicide (carbendazim) has the lowest percent disease incidence (PDI) while seed treatment with B. subtilis TRO4 has a higher yield (kg/ha) (p&lt;0.05). In sick plots of rabi 2023-24, the seed treatment with B. subtilis TRO4 has the lowest PDI, better plant growth parameters and higher yield (kg/ha) (p&lt;0.05). In the field experiment of rabi 2023-24, the seed treatment with B. subtilis TRO4 (@10 mL/kg) resulted in the lowest PDI, better plant growth parameters and higher yield (kg/ha) (p&lt;0.05).</div>

Biocontrol Activity of Endophytic Bacillus subtilis Strains against Wilt Complex in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under Sick Plot and Field Conditions

<div>Background: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) contributes 18% of the global production of grain legume and serves as an important source of dietary protein. Fusarium wilt, caused by soil borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri appears to be the most devastating diseases of chickpea throughout the world. It is one of the important limiting factors of chickpea production in India. The disease causes substantial yield losses which may reach even 100 per cent under favorable weather conditions. 
 
Methods: Pot culture experiments were conducted at Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur during rabi 2014-15 and 2015-16 to study the effect of nutrients on wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri (Padwick) in chickpea (Cicer arirtinum). In the first experiment, the treatments comprised of four nitrogen levels-viz. 0, 15, 20 and 25 kg/ha and four phosphorus levels- viz. 0, 30, 40 and 50 kg/ha tried in sixteen treatment combinations. Surface sterilized seeds of chickpea cultivar L-550 were sown in each pot. After sowing, 400 ml water was supplied to each pot; there after watering was done at an interval of 6 days. In second experiment, the treatments comprised of 7 micronutrients viz. zinc, manganese, calcium, copper, cobalt, iron and nickel used at the rate of 10mg/kg of soil. Chickpea cultivar L-550 was used as a test crop.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Disease incidence was recorded periodically commencing 15 days after sowing and was continued up to 55 days after sowing. Levels of nitrogen application had increased wilt incidence successively in both the years. Whereas, a reverse trend was observed with the application of phosphorus, incidence of wilt was decreased with increasing levels of phosphorus. Application of zinc and calcium reduced the wilt incidence significantly over check. Zinc was found to be most effective in minimizing the disease incidence.&nbsp;</div>

​Effect of Nutrients on Wilt in Chickpea

Phasing out of methyl bromide has resulted in the need for alternative strategies for the management of soilborne pests and diseases. Among several bioactive molecules, glucosinolates from Brassicaceae and their enzymatic degradation products, especially isothiocyanates formed by myrosinase enzyme, stand out as a promising alternative biofumigants. The effectiveness of biocidal compounds released from brassica species {Sinapis alba L. (syn. Brassica alba L.), B. nigra L., B. napus L., B. rapa L., B. juncea L. and B. carinata} tissue degradation on Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (Padwick) Matuo &amp; K.Sato (F.o.c; causal agent of chickpea wilt) growth in vitro, propagule attrition in soil and incidence of chickpea wilt in the field was carried out. Brassica alba L. was found to be the most toxic as it resulted in maximum percent mycelial growth inhibition of the pathogen followed by B. nigra L. &nbsp;and B. juncea L. tissues. Under glasshouse conditions, B. nigra was found most effective in reducing the colony forming units of the pathogen followed by B. alba L. and B. juncea L.. Lowest wilt severity under field conditions was observed in B. juncea L. tissues while greatest grain yield was produced in B. alba L. amended plots. The present study showed that the soil amendment with brassicas might be a feasible non-chemical approach to manage fusarium wilt of chickpea.

Management of fusarium wilt of chickpea using brassicas as biofumigants 
&nbsp;

<div>Background: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the most important leguminous crop around the world. Fusarium wilt incited by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris is a major biotic constraint in chickpea production. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of plant extracts, fungicides and bio-agents against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris under in vitro and field conditions.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Plant extracts and fungicides were evaluated using poison food technique while antagonistic activity of bio-agents was studied using dual culture technique under in vitro conditions. Field trials were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of different plant extracts, fungicides and bio-agents against Fusarium wilt at Experimental Area of Plant Pathology, CCS HAU, Hisar. 
 
Result: Among thirteen plant extracts evaluated in vitro, neem leaves extract was found to be the most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceris followed by datura leaves&rsquo; and garlic cloves&rsquo; extract which were statistically at par. Out of six plant extracts tested against Fusarium wilt under field conditions, seed treatment with extracts of neem and datura leaves at 10% concentration were most effective and curtailed the wilt incidence by 39.02 and 34.14% along with 7.55 and 6.83% enhanced seed yield. Among fungicides, carbendazim 50 WP was the most toxic fungicide in restricting colony diameter of the pathogen with the least EC50 and EC90 values of 1.28 and 15.24 ppm a.i. followed by azoxystrobin 23 SC with corresponding values of 1.57 and 49.16 ppm a.i., respectively. Seed treatment with carbendazim 50 WP and azoxystrobin 23 SC were superior over other treatments and provided 88.41 and 85.98% reduction in disease incidence along with 12.85 and 10.99% higher seed yield over control. Among the bio-agents tested, T. viride and T. harzianum gave the best results in suppressing the pathogen growth in vitro and in minimizing the disease incidence coupled with improvement in seed yield under field conditions. The present study has provided chemical and non-chemical measures for integrated management of chickpea wilt.</div>

<div>Construing the Role of Plant Extracts, Fungicides and Bio-agents in Ameliorating Fusarium Wilt Management in Chickpea</div>

Background: Wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris in chickpea remains a persistent threat, leading to substantial losses in both quantity and quality. A roving survey was undertaken during rabi 2022-23 and 2023-24 to assemble information on chickpea wilt affected areas of Telangana state, India. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: Wilt incidence of chickpea was calculated in each field by using the quadrant mode. The coordinates of surveyed fields were additionally recorded with the help of GPS and disease incidence was calculated. 
&nbsp; 
Result: 14 villages in 7 districts namely Gadwal, Naryanpet, Mancherial, Nizamabad, Nirmal, Siddipet and Ranga Reddy districts were surveyed. Maximum (41.92% and 44.24%) wilt incidence was recorded in Basar village of Nirmal district, followed (31.92% and 35.31%) by Mudhole of Nirmal. Wilt incidence was minimum (16.47% and 20.21%) at Hindupur of Naryanpet. Overall incidence level of wilt in seven districts indicated that Nirmal had maximum level of disease incidence ranging from 19-44% followed by Gadwal (19-44%), Nizamabad (19-35%), Ranga Reddy (19-35%), Siddipet (16-25%), Mancherial (16-25%) respectively. These findings highlight the widespread presence of Fusarium wilt in chickpea crop growing regions of Telangana. Consequently, it is essential to explore effective management strategies to address this issue, as chickpea is a remunerative pulse crop suitable for cultivation in black soils during early rabi. 
&nbsp;

Assessment for Chickpea Fusarium Wilt in Telangana

<div style="text-align:justify">Background:&nbsp;Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris (Foc) is one of the most important pathogen, causing wilt of chickpea. It is soil and seed borne pathogen. &nbsp;A serious threat in Foc is the evolution of new races, which reduces exploitation of wilt resistance in the crop in a particular area. Eight races (race 0, 1A, 1B/C, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) were reported &nbsp;in the world and &nbsp;among them four races &nbsp;(race 1, 2, 3, 4) &nbsp;were &nbsp;from India. Race 1 was reported from Andhra Pradesh. It is very important to monitor the variation regularly in new isolates collected from different varieties or genotypes and different geographical regions to identify the racial pattern. Development of SCAR markers for identification of Foc isolates is also important as they are highly reliable.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Twenty isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris were obtained &nbsp;from wilt infected plants of chickpea covering different places of Andhra Pradesh including two isolates from Telangana and confirmed the pathogen based on pathogenicity test. They were &nbsp;tested on &nbsp;host differentials of chickpea for &nbsp;races identification. Among these twenty isolates five most virulent isolates (Foc-6, Foc-10, Foc-12, Foc-17 and Foc-24) were selected for RAPD based on pathogenicity test and SCAR marker was developed based on DNA banding pattern during RAPD for one isolate. 
 
Result: Based on the disease reaction on differentials, concluded that 17 of them out of 20 were matched with race-1 reaction. Two isolates were &nbsp;matched with race-6 reaction and one is not matched with none of the races. An amplified product of polymorphic band of approximately 700 bp in the isolate &nbsp;Foc-12, obtained during RAPD analysis &nbsp;was selected for &nbsp;SCAR marker development and two SCAR markers were developed and validated. Identification of races mainly helps in development of resistant cultivars to specific races and might be contributed to development of integrated disease management practices for Fusarium wilt.</div>

<div>Identification of Races of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris, Inciting Wilt of Chickpea in Andhra Pradesh and Parts of Telangana</div>