<div>Background: As cats undergo stress at the time of presentation before surgery and therefore sedation is required often. It is very difficult to choose a balanced anaesthetic protocol during the surgical intervention in the case of a cat. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of ketamine hydrochloride in combination with midazolam, dexmedetomidine and butorphanol as balanced anaesthesia on clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in the surgical management of cats undergoing neutering. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study was performed on 18 clinical cases of cats which were brought to the Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry (CVSc and AH), Central Agricultural University (CAU), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram for elective surgery such as neutering. Cats were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, i.e. Gr. A, Gr. B and Gr. C. Animals were premedicated with glycopyrrolate @ 0.01 mg/kg, i/m. After 10 minutes of premedication, in Gr. A ketamine hydrochloride @15 mg/kg and midazolam @ 0.5 mg/kg, in Gr. B ketamine hydrochloride @10 mg/ kg and dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg /kg and in Gr. C ketamine hydrochloride @ 5 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg/kg and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly. Clinico-physiological and haemato-biochemical profiles were evaluated at 0 minute (baseline), then at 15, 30 and 60 minutes after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In the case of time for induction, the quality of induction, assessment of peri-operative analgesia, depth of anaesthesia and quality of recovery there was no significant difference among all three groups. In Gr. B, animals showed significantly higher duration of recumbency (DOE) and recovery. The assessment of peri-operative analgesic effect among the groups revealed that analgesia during the perioperative period appeared best in Gr. C protocol. In regards to depth of anaesthesia, ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol group showed a better result. Rectal temperature decreased significantly (P&gt;0.05) up to 60th minutes in Gr. A, but it remained within the physiological range. Heart rate raised significantly (p&lt;0.05) from the baseline (0 minutes) onwards and decreased significantly (p&lt;0.05) till the end (60 minutes) of the study in Gr. C. The respiration rate was significantly (p&lt;0.01) different in between time intervals for all three groups. No significant difference was observed on haemato-biochemical observation except glucose level which significantly increased after induction of anaesthesia. In conclusion, treatment with ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol led to acceptable sedation and mild changes in clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in comparison to the other two groups.</div>

Evaluation of Ketamine Hydrochloride in Combination with Midazolam, Dexmedetomidine and Butorphanol as Balanced Anaesthesia in Cats

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

<div style="text-align:justify">Background: The study was conducted to evaluate the cardiopulmonary functions in dog under propofol, ketamine and isoflurane anaesthesia premedicated with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol. 
 
Methods: Four groups of dogs (A,B,C and D) comprising of six animals in each groups were premedicated with glycopyrrolate @ 0.01 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine @5&mu;g/kg IV and Butorphanol @ 0.1mg/kg IV. Induction was done with propofol (A and B) and with ketamine (C and D). The anaesthesia was maintained with isoflurane (A and C), propofol (B) and ketamine (D). The cardiopulmonary functions were recorded at 0 minute (before premedication) and 20 minutes, 40 minutes and 60 minutes.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The heart rate decreased significantly in Group B while there was a significant gradual increase in heart rate in Group D. A significant decrease in respiratory rate was observed in all the groups with a lowest value in group D. The systolic pressure decreased significantly in Group A, B and C but in Group D, the systolic pressure decreased initially at 20 minute. The diastolic pressure decreased significantly in Group A and Group B and but in group D, the diastolic pressure decreased at 20 minute. A significant decrease in mean arterial pressure was recorded in Group A, B and C. In Group D, a decrease in the mean arterial pressure was noticed at 20 minute. The SpO2 level remained near the base line values with slight variation in Group A and C where as the values remained at lower level from the base line value in Group B and D. The EtCO2 level showed non-significant changes in Group A and C. In Group B and D, the EtCO2 levels increased non-significantly with the highest value recorded in Group D. The ECG parameters remained within the normal limit with slight variation according to the heart rate.</div>

<div style="text-align:justify">Cardiopulmonary Functions in Dogs under Propofol, Ketamine and Isoflurane Anaesthesia Premedicated with Glycopyrrolate, Dexmedetomidine and Butorphanol</div>

<div>Background: Endotracheal intubation for inhalation anaesthesia in pigs is not considered a good anaesthetic method as it is technically difficult because of oral anatomy and the presence of excess tissues in the oropharyngeal region. Moreover, the major limitation of inhalation anaesthesia is that it requires the use of a cumbersome and costly anaesthetic machine, including a suitable breathing system and vaporizer and is the exposure of operating-room personnel to the pollution in the ambient air. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of propofol, ketamine and their combination &lsquo;Ketofol&rsquo; as a TIVA in pigs. 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in eighteen piglets of either sex. The piglets were randomly divided into three groups with six animals in each group. All the three groups were premedicated with Atropine sulphate @ 0.04mg/kg body weight and Xylazine Hydrochloride @ 1mg/kg body weight I.M. and Medazolam @ 0.5mg/kg body weight I.M. with minimum forcible restraint as pre-anaesthetic. In group-I, propofol @ 5mg/kg body weight, in group-II, ketamine @ 5mg/kg body weight and in group-III, ketofol @ 4mg/kg body weight was administered intravenously for induction after 15 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration. Surgical anaesthesia was maintained for 90 minutes in all three groups viz. group-I, group-II and group-III with propofol @ 2.5mg/kg, ketamine @ 2.5mg/kg and ketofol @ 2mg/kg body weight respectively by intermittent bolus injection (IBI) technique. Clinical and cardiopulmonary profiles were evaluated before administration of the anaesthetic agent (0 minutes) then at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes during and after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect. 
 
Result: The study revealed that induction time (IT), duration of analgesia (DOA), duration of recumbency (DOR) and recovery time (RT) interval showed better result in the combination of ketamine and propofol group as compared to propofol and ketamine-induced individual group. The temperature and respiration rate was significantly decreased in all the groups at 30 minutes during TIVA whereas heart rate was significantly increased in all the groups at 15 minutes. The combination of ketamine and propofol group showed a consistent diastolic pressure and systolic pressure during the entire period of anaesthesia. The SPO2 in the ketamine-induced group showed a significant decrease (P&lt;0.01) as compared to the propofol and ketofol group. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery.</div>

Anaesthetic Effects of Propofol, Ketamine and their Combination (Ketofol) as Total Intravenous Anaesthesia (TIVA) in Pigs

Background: Zoletil is a proprietary combination of equal parts of tiletamine and zolazepam with relatively short duration of action which necessitates administration of several maintenance doses. Zoletil combined with dexmedetomidine and fentanyl citrate in goats has not been reported in Indian literature. Therefore, the objective of present study was to compare the sedative, analgesic, anaesthetic efficacy and suitability of peanaesthetics in combination with intravenous zoletil anaesthesia in goats. 
 
Methods: Eighteen healthy non-descript goats of either sex, weighing between 20-25 kg were randomly divided into three groups (Group Z, DexZ and FentZ) with six animals in each. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/kg b.wt. intramuscularly was administered 10 min. prior to anaesthetic trail in all the animals of different groups. The animals of group Z received Zoletil alone @ 5.5 mg/kg by slow intravenous injection and kept as control. Ten minutes later, in groups DexZ and FentZ, dexmedetomidine @ 5 mcg/kg b.wt. and fentanyl citate @ 10 mcg/kgb.wt. were administered slow intravenously respectively. Anaesthesia was induced 10 minutes later by slow bolus dose of Zoletil @ 5.5 mg/kg b. wt. intravenously in animals of all the groups till the pedal reflex abolished.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexZ followed by FentZ and Z. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery time were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexZ as compared to group FentZ and Z. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but of longer duration in animals of group DexZ. To conclude dexmedetomidine-zoletil combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with excellent muscle relaxation suitable for long surgical procedure.&nbsp;

Comparative Evaluation of Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl Citrate as Preanaesthetic to Intravenous Zoletil Anaesthesia in Goats (Capra hircus)

Background: Ruminants are poor subject for general anaesthesia. With advancement in veterinary sciences, there is need of balanced anaesthesia with rapid, smooth, induction and lesser recumbency time for large animals. Therefore, the present study was planned to evaluate the alternations on clinico-physiological parameters following ketamine anaesthesia in buffalo calves premedicated with either diazepam, butorphanol or xylazine. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study was undertaken in eighteen male buffalo calves and divided into three groups (A, B and C) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the buffalo calves were administrated glycopyrrolate 0.01 mg kg b.wt. intramuscularly. The animals of group A, B and C were premedicated intravenously with diazepam 0.5 mg kg b.wt., butorphanol 0.075 mg kg b.wt. and xylazine 0.16 mg kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with ketamine 4 mg kg b.wt. intravenously and clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, induction, duration and recovery of anaesthesia. Physiological parameters were also recorded before (0), 5 min after sedation, induction and at 10, 20, 40, 60 and 120 min following ketamine anaesthesia. 
&nbsp; 
Result: The onset of sedation and anaesthesia was quicker in animals of group A followed by group C and B respectively. The physiological parameters showed transient changes in all the three groups which were compensated and remained within normal physiological range during the study period. Ketamine in conjunction with various preanaesthetic combinations did not produce any adverse effect on cardiopulmonary system. Thus, ketamine could be safely used as general anaesthestic in buffalo calves premedicated with diazepam, butorphanol or xylazine. However, a combination of xylazine-ketamine produced longer duration of surgical anaesthesia in buffalo calves as compared to other anaesthetic combinations.

Evaluation of Clinical and Physiological Parameters Following Ketamine Anaesthesia in Conjunction with Various Premedicants in Male Water Buffalo Calves (Bubalus bubalis)

<div>Background: Large ruminants are considered as high risk anaesthesia patient for abdominal surgery because of their heavy weight, the late-term gravidity and the expected long duration of anaesthesia. In order to augment cardiopulmonary function, we aimed at decreasing the requirement of inhalant agents for surgery. Several studies have revealed that lignocaine infusion significantly reduces the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of inhalation agents in a variety of species. Thus the present study is focused on assessing the adjunct property of intravenous lignocaine CRI in multimodal general anaesthetic protocol employed for intestinal surgery in cattle. 
 
Methods: The study was carried out in 12 clinical cases of cattle which were randomly categorized into two equally groups. All the animals were premedicated with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol tartrate at the dose rate of 0.5 &micro;g per kg and 0.02 mg per kg body weight i.v. respectively. After five minutes of premedication, induction of anaesthesia was achieved with double drip solution containing ketamine hydrochloride 2 mg and guaifenesin 50 mg per mL respectively, administered i.v. &ldquo;to effect&rdquo;. Anaesthesia was maintained with isoflurane in all the animals. In group II animals ten minutes prior to skin incision, slow intravenous lignocaine bolus at the dose rate of 2 mg per kg and continuous rate infusion at the dose rate of 50 &micro;g per kg per min was delivered through volumetric infusion pump. 
 
Result: The Isoflurane liquid utilised for maintenance decreased significantly in group II than group I, which signifies that the inclusion of lignocaine in the anaesthetic protocol has 14.95 per cent isoflurane sparing effect.</div>

​Isoflurane Sparing Effect of Continuous Rate Infusion of Lignocaine as An Adjunct to General Anaesthesia during Right Flank Laparotomy in Cattle

Laboratory animal anaesthesia and analgesia are essential for ethical research, balancing welfare with scientific rigor. This review synthesizes historical practices and contemporary innovations to refine perioperative care. We evaluate the shift to inhalant/hybrid protocols for precision and compliance with the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement). Advancements include multimodal pain assessment (e.g., rat grimace scale) and technology-driven monitoring, enhancing detection of pain masked by anaesthesia. Innovations address physiological challenges like hypothermia and species-specific responses. Interdisciplinary One Health collaborations foster sustainable practices and translational biomarker discovery. However, barriers persist, including resource disparities, understudied chronic pain models and slow technology adoption, highlighting the need for global standardization. Case studies illustrate successes with pre-emptive analgesia and failures from outdated protocols. Practical recommendations include perioperative checklists and institutional training to harmonize welfare and research goals. Prioritizing animal welfare is fundamental to scientific excellence, urging innovation, equity and transparency.

Advances in Anaesthesia and Analgesia for Laboratory Animals- Current Practices and Future Directions: A Review

Background: Zoletil has been used at different dose rates with or without preanaesthetics through intramuscular or intravenous routes in canine patients with varying results in other countries. The doses recommended by the manufacturer as well as researchers and the observations on various clinico-physiological and hemodynamic parameters are also highly variable. Keeping these points in mind, the present study was conducted to study anesthetic/sedative effects of intramuscular administration of Zoletil (20 mg/kg)&nbsp; and also to study the effect of glycopyrrolate (0.005 mg/kg)-xylazine (0.5 mg/kg) supplementation on Zoletil (10 mg/kg)-induced total intramuscular anesthesia in dogs.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: Fourteen canine patients were divided into two groups, viz., A and B, with seven animals in each group.In group A, Zoletil (tiletamine-zolazepam) at the dose rate of 20 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly as an anaesthetic. In group B, preanesthetic glycopyrrolate at 0.005 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly. After 15 minutes, xylazine at 0.5 mg/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly. After 15 minutes of preanesthetic administration in the B group, anaesthesia was induced intramuscularly with tiletamine-zolazepam @ 10 mg/kg body weight.&nbsp; 
 
Result: Zoletil (Tiletamine-zolazepam, 20 mg/kg IM) (group A) is only recommended for non-surgical/diagnostic (viz. Gastro-intestinal endoscopy)/minor surgical procedures in uncooperative dogs. An intramuscular anaesthetic protocol using glycopyrrolate (0.005 mg/kg)-xylazine (0.5 mg/kg) - Zoletil (10 mg/kg IM) (group B) is recommended for major surgical procedures of long duration. Neither the anaesthetic protocol produced any serious deleterious effect on hemato-biochemical and hemodynamic parameters; hence both protocols can be used safely in dogs as per the requirements of the procedure.

Effect of Glycopyrrolate-xylazine Supplementation on Zoletil-induced Total Intramuscular Anaesthesia in Dogs

<div>The study was aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of isoflurane and sevoflurane as maintenance agent in a balanced anaesthetic combination for buffaloes undergoing diaphragmatic herniorrhaphy. Twelve clinical cases of diaphragmatic hernia in female buffaloes were randomly selected and assigned to two groups (PS and PI) of six animals each. After premedication with glycopyrrolate, xylazine and butorphanol, induction was done with propofol. For maintenance, either sevoflurane (PS) or isoflurane (PI) was used with oxygen through a partial rebreathing system. Clinical, physiological, behavioral, haematological and biochemical parameters were recorded at different intervals. No significant differences were observed in maintenance scores, degree of muscle relaxation as well as haematological and blood biochemical parameters between the groups. The heart and respiratory rates were observed to be less depressed in PS than in PI. The recovery and standing with ataxia in PS was significantly earlier than the PI. Both isoflurane and sevoflurane were found to be safe and effective maintenance anaesthetic agents for buffaloes undergoing diaphragmatic herniorrhaphy; however, the sevoflurane was assessed to be slightly better as maintenance agent because of faster recovery and lesser cardiovascular depression than isoflurane.</div>

<div>Evaluation of sevoflurane and isoflurane as maintenance agent in buffaloes after glycopyrrolate-xylazine-butorphanol-propofol anaesthesia&nbsp;</div>