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Full Research Article

Prevalence and Distribution of Claw Lesions in Crossbred Dairy Cattle and Their Association with Lameness and Milk Yield

P
Priyanka Meena1
M
Mukund A. Kataktalware1,*
0000-0001-8802-5197
A
Anand Kumar Yadav1
U
Uppiretla Tony1
M
M. Sivaram1
G
G. Letha Devi2
A
Arindam Dhali1
1ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru-560 030, Karnataka, India.
2ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Adugodi, Bengaluru-560 030, Karnataka, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Claw lesions are a major cause of lameness and reduced productivity in dairy cattle. This study evaluated their prevalence, distribution and association with mobility score and milk yield.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on dairy cattle under organized farm conditions. Claw lesions were recorded through hoof examination, locomotion was assessed using a standardized scoring system and milk yield was obtained from farm records. Associations were analysed using Fisher’s exact test and generalized linear mixed models, while effects on milk yield were evaluated using linear mixed models (p<0.05).

Result: Prevalence of claw lesion was high (91.63%), with most animals affected in multiple hooves and slightly higher occurrence in hind limbs (51.45%). Hoof discolouration, heel horn erosion and double sole were the most common lesions, indicating prevalent subclinical conditions. Several lesions were significantly associated with mobility scores (p<0.05). Milk yield declined with increasing lameness severity and was influenced by mobility score, body condition score, age and parity, but not by individual lesions.

INTRODUCTION

Claw lesions are the primary cause of lameness in dairy cattle and a major concern for animal welfare and farm profitability (Saikiran et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2025). Lameness affects 20-30% of herds, exceeding 50% in intensive systems and remains a persistent global issue (Solano et al., 2015; Thomsen et al., 2023; Patoliya et al., 2024). The development of claw lesions is multifactorial, involving environmental, nutritional, genetic and managemental factors (Robcis et al., 2023; Weber et al., 2023). Poor housing, moisture exposure, metabolic stress and periparturient changes compromise claw integrity, while breed susceptibility varies, with Holsteins more prone to lesions (Havlicek et al., 2026; Magrin et al., 2022). Claw lesions include non-infectious CHDL (e.g., sole ulcer, white line disease, double sole) and infectious conditions such as digital dermatitis (Kofler et al., 2024; Roche et al., 2023; Sadiq et al., 2024). Subclinical lesions often indicate early damage and multiple lesions reflect chronic exposure (Relun et al., 2013). Severity of claw lesions depends on lesion type and progression, necessitating combined lesion and locomotion assessment (Tadich et al., 2010). Lameness reduces feed intake, milk yield and life span and increases economic losses (Dogra et al., 2020; Robcis et al., 2023).
       
Despite this, data from Indian organized dairy systems remain limited. Therefore, this study evaluated the prevalence and distribution of claw lesions and their association with mobility score and milk yield in Holstein-Friesian crossbred cattle at ICAR-NDRI, Bengaluru, to support improved hoof health management and productivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at the Livestock Research Centre, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR-NDRI), Southern Regional Station, Bengaluru, from March 2024 to September 2025, on Holstein-Friesian crossbred cattle to evaluate the association of claw lesions with mobility and milk yield (Table 1). The protocol was approved by the institutional animal ethics committee (CCSEA/IAEC/LA/SRS-ICAR-NDRI-2024/No-08). Animals (cows and heifers) were maintained under standard management in well-ventilated sheds with hygienic conditions. They were fed a balanced ration comprising green fodder (Hybrid Napier, maize and para grass), finger millet straw and concentrate as per NRC (2001) recommendations, with water available ad libitum. Milking was carried out twice daily using a machine milking system and individual milk yield (kg) was obtained from farm records. Clinically healthy, free-moving animals of all parities and lactation stages were included, while animals within 21 days postpartum, with systemic illness, under treatment, or with restricted movement unrelated to lameness were excluded. Locomotion was assessed after morning milking using video recordings on a standardized trackway and mobility scores (0-3) were assigned following Reader et al. (2011), with scores >1 considered lame. Body condition score was recorded on a five-point scale (Ferguson et al., 2006). Hooves were cleaned and examined with animals restrained in a hoof trimming chute. Claw lesions were recorded as present or absent following standard procedures (Raven, 1989) and claw conformation was assessed using ICAR Claw Health Atlas guidelines (Egger-Danner et al., 2017).

Table 1: Classification of experimental animals.


       
Statistical analyses were performed using R (version 4.3.2). Descriptive statistics, Fisher’s exact test, generalized linear mixed models and linear mixed models were used, with results expressed as estimates, SE, OR and 95% CI at p<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Distribution pattern of claw lesions in dairy cattle
 
A total of 215 animals were examined, with an animal-level prevalence of claw lesions of 91.63% (197 animals) (Table 2). Most animals (65.0%) had lesions in all four hooves, while 13.2%, 12.7% and 9.1% had lesions in two, three and one hoof, respectively. Additionally, 79.7% of animals had four or more lesions per animal. This high prevalence and multi-limb involvement indicate chronic, systemic influences, likely related to management and environmental conditions, consistent with previous reports (Seixas et al., 2024; Sadiq et al., 2017).

Table 2: Frequency and anatomical distribution of claw lesions in crossbred dairy cattle.


       
Lesions were slightly more frequent in hind limbs (51.45%) than those of forelimbs (48.55%), likely due to greater mechanical load and increased exposure to moisture and slurry (Relun et al., 2013; Nuss et al., 2019; Lischer and Ossent, 2002). The near-symmetrical distribution between right and left limbs suggests systemic rather than limb-specific risk factors (Relun et al., 2013). The presence of multiple lesions per animal reflects prolonged exposure to predisposing conditions and possible compensatory weight redistribution. Poor hoof care practices, including inadequate trimming, may further aggravate lesion development (Solano et al., 2015). These findings emphasize the need for routine hoof health monitoring and improved hygiene management to prevent lameness.
 
Baseline characteristics of study animals
 
The mean body condition score (2.95±0.34) and milk yield (8.37±3.97 kg/day) characterized the study population. Locomotion scoring showed that 44.7% of animals were normal (MS 0), while 19.5% exhibited moderate to severe lameness (MS≥2), indicating notable mobility issues. Maintaining optimal BCS supports digital cushion function and reduces the risk of claw horn lesions (Sadiq et al., 2017), whereas lower BCS in older cows increases lameness risk (Machado et al., 2010). The observed prevalence is consistent with comparable systems (Sadiq et al., 2017). Regular mobility scoring and timely hoof trimming are essential to detect subclinical cases early and prevent progression to severe lameness, which can adversely affect feeding behaviour and productivity (Havlicek et al., 2026).
 
Prevalence of claw lesions at the leg level
 
The prevalence of claw lesions at the leg level is presented in Fig 1 (forest plot with 95% CI). Hoof discolouration (38.84%, 95% CI: 35.56-42.19) and heel horn erosion (38.72%, 95% CI: 35.45-42.07), followed by double sole (33.14%, 95% CI: 30.00-36.40), were the most prevalent lesions. Hoof discolouration indicates early haemorrhage within the sole horn (Sadiq et al., 2017), while heel horn erosion is associated with bacterial degradation under moist, unhygienic conditions (Sogstad et al., 2005; Relun et al., 2013). Double sole reflects disruption of horn formation due to mechanical or metabolic stress (Seixas et al., 2024; Ossent and Lischer, 1998). Structural abnormalities such as asymmetrical claw (14.07%, 95% CI: 11.81-16.57) and concave dorsal wall (8.26%, 95% CI: 6.50-10.30) indicate poor hoof management (Parés-Casanova et al., 2020; Burgstaller et al., 2016). Less frequent lesions, including white line fissure (3.84%), interdigital hyperplasia (3.72%) and vertical horn fissure (3.26%), may still impact productivity due to their progressive nature (Mülling, 2002; Angelos et al., 2019; Pirkkalainen et al., 2022).

Fig 1: Forest plot of claw lesion prevalence with 95% confidence intervals.


 
Association of claw lesions with mobility score thresholds
 
The association between claw lesions and locomotion score thresholds was assessed using Fisher’s exact test and GLMM (Table 3). Several lesions showed significant associations with lameness. Vertical horn fissure was associated with MS 1 (OR = 3.9; p = 0.0033) and MS 2 (OR = 3.24; p = 0.0055) and interdigital hyperplasia with MS 1 (OR = 4.62; p < 0.001) and MS 2 (OR = 3.40; p = 0.0021), indicating their role in impaired locomotion (Greenough, 2007; Hӓssig et al., 2018). Horn-related lesions, including hoof discolouration (MS 1: OR = 4.13; MS 2: OR = 1.77) and heel horn erosion (MS 1: OR = 3.91; MS 2: OR = 2.41), were also strongly associated with lameness, suggesting that compromised horn quality may precede clinical signs (Solano et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016). White line fissure showed a strong association with MS 1 (OR = 13.48; p < 0.001), highlighting its importance in claw integrity (Mülling, 2002). Double sole was associated only with MS 1 (OR = 1.48; p = 0.0087) and not with higher scores, indicating that not all lesions lead to severe lameness (Tadich et al., 2010). GLMM identified fewer significant associations, likely due to adjustment for clustering effects.

Table 3: Significant associations between claw lesions and locomotion score thresholds identified by fisher’s exact test and GLMM.


 
Risk factors associated with claw lesions
 
The association between risk factors and claw lesions was evaluated using multi variable GLMM (Table 4). Age, parity and mobility status were significant determinants. Multiparous animals had higher odds of vertical horn fissure (OR = 12.87; p = 0.048), while concave dorsal wall was associated with multiparous (OR = 15.89; p = 0.020), primiparous (OR = 15.75; p = 0.017) and older animals (OR = 54.56; p = 0.002). Older animals also showed increased odds of heel horn erosion (OR = 34.64; p < 0.001), likely due to cumulative mechanical stress and prolonged exposure (Seixas et al., 2024; Magrin et al., 2022). Mobility score was another significant factor, with MS 1 animals showing higher odds of heel horn erosion (OR = 2.87; p = 0.006), indicating that early gait changes may reflect underlying claw pathology (Tadich et al., 2010).

Table 4: Significant risk factors associated with claw lesions (p<0.05) based on multivariable GLMM.


 
Effects of claw lesions and animal-level covariates on milk yield
 
Linear mixed model analysis (Table 5) revealed that milk yield was significantly driven by animal-level covariates-specifically age, parity, body condition score (BCS) and locomotion score-rather than the presence of individual claw lesions. Nutritional status and physiological maturity were strong positive determinants of production. BCS exhibited a significant positive relationship with milk yield (β = 2.25; p = 0.0018), reflecting the benefits of optimal nutritional reserves (Bédéré et al., 2018). Similarly, both primiparous (β = 1.74; p = 0.0031) and multiparous animals (β = 1.84; p = 0.0116) demonstrated higher yields compared to the reference cohort. The influence of parity was consistent with expected physiological maturity effects (Berry and Downing, 2025), showing positive associations at parity 1 (β = 1.72; p = 0.0101) and parity 11 (β = 9.78; p = 0.0248), alongside a negative association at parity 6 (β = 1.90; p = 0.0215). Crucially, the model indicated no direct, significant effect of individual claw lesions on milk yield. This lack of association suggests that production losses are primarily mediated by the overall severity of the lameness rather than the mere presence of localized hoof damage (Kibar and Çağlayan, 2016). Furthermore, while lameness generally depresses yield, the relationship is complex; high-yielding animals frequently experience heightened metabolic stress, which can inherently predispose them to locomotion issues (Seixas et al., 2024).

Table 5: Effects of claw lesions and animal-level covariates on milk yield.


 
Relationship between locomotion score and milk yield
 
Milk yield was peak in animals with a mobility score of 1 (MS 1) and progressively declined as lameness severity increased (Fig 2). Severely lame animals (MS 3) produced the least milk, consistent with reduced feed intake and altered behaviour (Seixas et al., 2024). The comparatively lower median yield observed in perfectly sound animals (MS 0) is attributed to the inclusion of primiparous heifers, which naturally possess lower baseline production and fewer chronic lesions than those of mature cows (Vermunt and Greenough, 1996). After adjusting for these parity differences, linear mixed models confirmed that moderate to severe lameness (MS 2 and MS 3) significantly reduces milk yield, likely driven by metabolic stress (O’Connor et al., 2020). Overall, highly prevalent claw lesions influence production indirectly through locomotion impairment, highlighting the critical need for early detection and preventive hoof health management.

Fig 2: Boxplot showing the distribution of milk yield across locomotion score categories.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates a high prevalence and widespread distribution of claw lesions in dairy cattle, driven by persistent exposure to environmental and management-related risk factors. While subclinical lesions such as hoof discolouration, heel horn erosion and double sole were widespread, the present findings reveal that milk yield losses are primarily mediated by the severity of clinical lameness rather than the mere presence of individual lesions. Consequently, subclinical lesions should be treated as critical early indicators of ongoing claw horn disruption and impending mobility disorders. To protect both animal welfare and farm profitability, dairy management must prioritize preventive hoof health protocols including routine mobility scoring, timely therapeutic hoof trimming and optimized housing hygiene to intervene before subclinical damage progresses to yield limiting lameness.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank the Director, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal and the Head, ICAR-NDRI (SRS), Bengaluru, for providing necessary facilities. The first author gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, through the National Fellowship for Scheduled Tribe Students (NFST).
 
Disclaimer
 
The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy of the information but accept no liability for any direct or indirect losses arising from its use.
 
Informed consent
 
All experimental procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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    Full Research Article

    Prevalence and Distribution of Claw Lesions in Crossbred Dairy Cattle and Their Association with Lameness and Milk Yield

    P
    Priyanka Meena1
    M
    Mukund A. Kataktalware1,*
    0000-0001-8802-5197
    A
    Anand Kumar Yadav1
    U
    Uppiretla Tony1
    M
    M. Sivaram1
    G
    G. Letha Devi2
    A
    Arindam Dhali1
    1ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Adugodi, Bengaluru-560 030, Karnataka, India.
    2ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Adugodi, Bengaluru-560 030, Karnataka, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Claw lesions are a major cause of lameness and reduced productivity in dairy cattle. This study evaluated their prevalence, distribution and association with mobility score and milk yield.

    Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on dairy cattle under organized farm conditions. Claw lesions were recorded through hoof examination, locomotion was assessed using a standardized scoring system and milk yield was obtained from farm records. Associations were analysed using Fisher’s exact test and generalized linear mixed models, while effects on milk yield were evaluated using linear mixed models (p<0.05).

    Result: Prevalence of claw lesion was high (91.63%), with most animals affected in multiple hooves and slightly higher occurrence in hind limbs (51.45%). Hoof discolouration, heel horn erosion and double sole were the most common lesions, indicating prevalent subclinical conditions. Several lesions were significantly associated with mobility scores (p<0.05). Milk yield declined with increasing lameness severity and was influenced by mobility score, body condition score, age and parity, but not by individual lesions.

    INTRODUCTION

    Claw lesions are the primary cause of lameness in dairy cattle and a major concern for animal welfare and farm profitability (Saikiran et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2025). Lameness affects 20-30% of herds, exceeding 50% in intensive systems and remains a persistent global issue (Solano et al., 2015; Thomsen et al., 2023; Patoliya et al., 2024). The development of claw lesions is multifactorial, involving environmental, nutritional, genetic and managemental factors (Robcis et al., 2023; Weber et al., 2023). Poor housing, moisture exposure, metabolic stress and periparturient changes compromise claw integrity, while breed susceptibility varies, with Holsteins more prone to lesions (Havlicek et al., 2026; Magrin et al., 2022). Claw lesions include non-infectious CHDL (e.g., sole ulcer, white line disease, double sole) and infectious conditions such as digital dermatitis (Kofler et al., 2024; Roche et al., 2023; Sadiq et al., 2024). Subclinical lesions often indicate early damage and multiple lesions reflect chronic exposure (Relun et al., 2013). Severity of claw lesions depends on lesion type and progression, necessitating combined lesion and locomotion assessment (Tadich et al., 2010). Lameness reduces feed intake, milk yield and life span and increases economic losses (Dogra et al., 2020; Robcis et al., 2023).
           
    Despite this, data from Indian organized dairy systems remain limited. Therefore, this study evaluated the prevalence and distribution of claw lesions and their association with mobility score and milk yield in Holstein-Friesian crossbred cattle at ICAR-NDRI, Bengaluru, to support improved hoof health management and productivity.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The study was conducted at the Livestock Research Centre, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR-NDRI), Southern Regional Station, Bengaluru, from March 2024 to September 2025, on Holstein-Friesian crossbred cattle to evaluate the association of claw lesions with mobility and milk yield (Table 1). The protocol was approved by the institutional animal ethics committee (CCSEA/IAEC/LA/SRS-ICAR-NDRI-2024/No-08). Animals (cows and heifers) were maintained under standard management in well-ventilated sheds with hygienic conditions. They were fed a balanced ration comprising green fodder (Hybrid Napier, maize and para grass), finger millet straw and concentrate as per NRC (2001) recommendations, with water available ad libitum. Milking was carried out twice daily using a machine milking system and individual milk yield (kg) was obtained from farm records. Clinically healthy, free-moving animals of all parities and lactation stages were included, while animals within 21 days postpartum, with systemic illness, under treatment, or with restricted movement unrelated to lameness were excluded. Locomotion was assessed after morning milking using video recordings on a standardized trackway and mobility scores (0-3) were assigned following Reader et al. (2011), with scores >1 considered lame. Body condition score was recorded on a five-point scale (Ferguson et al., 2006). Hooves were cleaned and examined with animals restrained in a hoof trimming chute. Claw lesions were recorded as present or absent following standard procedures (Raven, 1989) and claw conformation was assessed using ICAR Claw Health Atlas guidelines (Egger-Danner et al., 2017).

    Table 1: Classification of experimental animals.


           
    Statistical analyses were performed using R (version 4.3.2). Descriptive statistics, Fisher’s exact test, generalized linear mixed models and linear mixed models were used, with results expressed as estimates, SE, OR and 95% CI at p<0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Distribution pattern of claw lesions in dairy cattle
     
    A total of 215 animals were examined, with an animal-level prevalence of claw lesions of 91.63% (197 animals) (Table 2). Most animals (65.0%) had lesions in all four hooves, while 13.2%, 12.7% and 9.1% had lesions in two, three and one hoof, respectively. Additionally, 79.7% of animals had four or more lesions per animal. This high prevalence and multi-limb involvement indicate chronic, systemic influences, likely related to management and environmental conditions, consistent with previous reports (Seixas et al., 2024; Sadiq et al., 2017).

    Table 2: Frequency and anatomical distribution of claw lesions in crossbred dairy cattle.


           
    Lesions were slightly more frequent in hind limbs (51.45%) than those of forelimbs (48.55%), likely due to greater mechanical load and increased exposure to moisture and slurry (Relun et al., 2013; Nuss et al., 2019; Lischer and Ossent, 2002). The near-symmetrical distribution between right and left limbs suggests systemic rather than limb-specific risk factors (Relun et al., 2013). The presence of multiple lesions per animal reflects prolonged exposure to predisposing conditions and possible compensatory weight redistribution. Poor hoof care practices, including inadequate trimming, may further aggravate lesion development (Solano et al., 2015). These findings emphasize the need for routine hoof health monitoring and improved hygiene management to prevent lameness.
     
    Baseline characteristics of study animals
     
    The mean body condition score (2.95±0.34) and milk yield (8.37±3.97 kg/day) characterized the study population. Locomotion scoring showed that 44.7% of animals were normal (MS 0), while 19.5% exhibited moderate to severe lameness (MS≥2), indicating notable mobility issues. Maintaining optimal BCS supports digital cushion function and reduces the risk of claw horn lesions (Sadiq et al., 2017), whereas lower BCS in older cows increases lameness risk (Machado et al., 2010). The observed prevalence is consistent with comparable systems (Sadiq et al., 2017). Regular mobility scoring and timely hoof trimming are essential to detect subclinical cases early and prevent progression to severe lameness, which can adversely affect feeding behaviour and productivity (Havlicek et al., 2026).
     
    Prevalence of claw lesions at the leg level
     
    The prevalence of claw lesions at the leg level is presented in Fig 1 (forest plot with 95% CI). Hoof discolouration (38.84%, 95% CI: 35.56-42.19) and heel horn erosion (38.72%, 95% CI: 35.45-42.07), followed by double sole (33.14%, 95% CI: 30.00-36.40), were the most prevalent lesions. Hoof discolouration indicates early haemorrhage within the sole horn (Sadiq et al., 2017), while heel horn erosion is associated with bacterial degradation under moist, unhygienic conditions (Sogstad et al., 2005; Relun et al., 2013). Double sole reflects disruption of horn formation due to mechanical or metabolic stress (Seixas et al., 2024; Ossent and Lischer, 1998). Structural abnormalities such as asymmetrical claw (14.07%, 95% CI: 11.81-16.57) and concave dorsal wall (8.26%, 95% CI: 6.50-10.30) indicate poor hoof management (Parés-Casanova et al., 2020; Burgstaller et al., 2016). Less frequent lesions, including white line fissure (3.84%), interdigital hyperplasia (3.72%) and vertical horn fissure (3.26%), may still impact productivity due to their progressive nature (Mülling, 2002; Angelos et al., 2019; Pirkkalainen et al., 2022).

    Fig 1: Forest plot of claw lesion prevalence with 95% confidence intervals.


     
    Association of claw lesions with mobility score thresholds
     
    The association between claw lesions and locomotion score thresholds was assessed using Fisher’s exact test and GLMM (Table 3). Several lesions showed significant associations with lameness. Vertical horn fissure was associated with MS 1 (OR = 3.9; p = 0.0033) and MS 2 (OR = 3.24; p = 0.0055) and interdigital hyperplasia with MS 1 (OR = 4.62; p < 0.001) and MS 2 (OR = 3.40; p = 0.0021), indicating their role in impaired locomotion (Greenough, 2007; Hӓssig et al., 2018). Horn-related lesions, including hoof discolouration (MS 1: OR = 4.13; MS 2: OR = 1.77) and heel horn erosion (MS 1: OR = 3.91; MS 2: OR = 2.41), were also strongly associated with lameness, suggesting that compromised horn quality may precede clinical signs (Solano et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016). White line fissure showed a strong association with MS 1 (OR = 13.48; p < 0.001), highlighting its importance in claw integrity (Mülling, 2002). Double sole was associated only with MS 1 (OR = 1.48; p = 0.0087) and not with higher scores, indicating that not all lesions lead to severe lameness (Tadich et al., 2010). GLMM identified fewer significant associations, likely due to adjustment for clustering effects.

    Table 3: Significant associations between claw lesions and locomotion score thresholds identified by fisher’s exact test and GLMM.


     
    Risk factors associated with claw lesions
     
    The association between risk factors and claw lesions was evaluated using multi variable GLMM (Table 4). Age, parity and mobility status were significant determinants. Multiparous animals had higher odds of vertical horn fissure (OR = 12.87; p = 0.048), while concave dorsal wall was associated with multiparous (OR = 15.89; p = 0.020), primiparous (OR = 15.75; p = 0.017) and older animals (OR = 54.56; p = 0.002). Older animals also showed increased odds of heel horn erosion (OR = 34.64; p < 0.001), likely due to cumulative mechanical stress and prolonged exposure (Seixas et al., 2024; Magrin et al., 2022). Mobility score was another significant factor, with MS 1 animals showing higher odds of heel horn erosion (OR = 2.87; p = 0.006), indicating that early gait changes may reflect underlying claw pathology (Tadich et al., 2010).

    Table 4: Significant risk factors associated with claw lesions (p<0.05) based on multivariable GLMM.


     
    Effects of claw lesions and animal-level covariates on milk yield
     
    Linear mixed model analysis (Table 5) revealed that milk yield was significantly driven by animal-level covariates-specifically age, parity, body condition score (BCS) and locomotion score-rather than the presence of individual claw lesions. Nutritional status and physiological maturity were strong positive determinants of production. BCS exhibited a significant positive relationship with milk yield (β = 2.25; p = 0.0018), reflecting the benefits of optimal nutritional reserves (Bédéré et al., 2018). Similarly, both primiparous (β = 1.74; p = 0.0031) and multiparous animals (β = 1.84; p = 0.0116) demonstrated higher yields compared to the reference cohort. The influence of parity was consistent with expected physiological maturity effects (Berry and Downing, 2025), showing positive associations at parity 1 (β = 1.72; p = 0.0101) and parity 11 (β = 9.78; p = 0.0248), alongside a negative association at parity 6 (β = 1.90; p = 0.0215). Crucially, the model indicated no direct, significant effect of individual claw lesions on milk yield. This lack of association suggests that production losses are primarily mediated by the overall severity of the lameness rather than the mere presence of localized hoof damage (Kibar and Çağlayan, 2016). Furthermore, while lameness generally depresses yield, the relationship is complex; high-yielding animals frequently experience heightened metabolic stress, which can inherently predispose them to locomotion issues (Seixas et al., 2024).

    Table 5: Effects of claw lesions and animal-level covariates on milk yield.


     
    Relationship between locomotion score and milk yield
     
    Milk yield was peak in animals with a mobility score of 1 (MS 1) and progressively declined as lameness severity increased (Fig 2). Severely lame animals (MS 3) produced the least milk, consistent with reduced feed intake and altered behaviour (Seixas et al., 2024). The comparatively lower median yield observed in perfectly sound animals (MS 0) is attributed to the inclusion of primiparous heifers, which naturally possess lower baseline production and fewer chronic lesions than those of mature cows (Vermunt and Greenough, 1996). After adjusting for these parity differences, linear mixed models confirmed that moderate to severe lameness (MS 2 and MS 3) significantly reduces milk yield, likely driven by metabolic stress (O’Connor et al., 2020). Overall, highly prevalent claw lesions influence production indirectly through locomotion impairment, highlighting the critical need for early detection and preventive hoof health management.

    Fig 2: Boxplot showing the distribution of milk yield across locomotion score categories.

    CONCLUSION

    This study demonstrates a high prevalence and widespread distribution of claw lesions in dairy cattle, driven by persistent exposure to environmental and management-related risk factors. While subclinical lesions such as hoof discolouration, heel horn erosion and double sole were widespread, the present findings reveal that milk yield losses are primarily mediated by the severity of clinical lameness rather than the mere presence of individual lesions. Consequently, subclinical lesions should be treated as critical early indicators of ongoing claw horn disruption and impending mobility disorders. To protect both animal welfare and farm profitability, dairy management must prioritize preventive hoof health protocols including routine mobility scoring, timely therapeutic hoof trimming and optimized housing hygiene to intervene before subclinical damage progresses to yield limiting lameness.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors thank the Director, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal and the Head, ICAR-NDRI (SRS), Bengaluru, for providing necessary facilities. The first author gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, through the National Fellowship for Scheduled Tribe Students (NFST).
     
    Disclaimer
     
    The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy of the information but accept no liability for any direct or indirect losses arising from its use.
     
    Informed consent
     
    All experimental procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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