Various tillage techniques, such as chiseling and moldboard plowing, greatly influence the growth and production of barley. Chisel plowing lessens the soil bulk density, resulting in improved aeration and rooting of the crops while it retains moisture which is of utmost importance in the production of barley. Turning the soil with the moldboard plow also helps control weeds and bury remaining crops. In deeper layers, though, it can occasionally result in soil compaction, which can negatively affect root development. Even though the moldboard plow can improve early soil conditions, the chisel plow might have a bigger long-term effect on barley yields (Wasaya et al., 2019). The choice between a moldboard plow and a chisel plow depends on specific crop requirements and soil conditions.
       
Since cereal grains are a staple food for people and a source of energy since their high carbohydrate content provides the body with the calories it needs, they are extremely significant (Lazim and Ramadhan, 2020). Knowing the amount of seed is essential for estimating crop performance in terms of resilience to various environmental conditions and agricultural pests, as well as its nutritional content and yield.
       
The application of nanotechnology in agriculture has grown in recent years and it is a helpful instrument for reaching the objective of sustainable food production. By supplying nutrients more effectively, these fertilizers seek to solve the problems with conventional fertilizers. This technique is a successful sustainability approach because it can boost production and nutritional value while lowering environmental impacts (Samreen and Rasool, 2025).
       
Since phosphorus is a structural element of plant nucleic acids in addition to biofilms and is necessary for plant development, it plays a significant role in tissue and cell division (Navea et al., 2024). Because leaves absorb nutrients far more quickly than roots do, foliar sprays are now a quick and efficient way to correct nutritional issues. Quick nutrient absorption through the leaves is necessary for quick deficit correction since it gives the plant the nutrients it lacks and fortifies it. Although conventional tillage systems and common fertilization practices have been studied in cereal crops, there is a lack of studies examining the interactive effect of tillage system type (chisel versus moldboard plow), seed application quantities and nano-phosphorus fertilizer levels on barley growth and yield. The effectiveness of nano-fertilizer applications and their response to different soil preparation methods also remain insufficiently explored in barley cropping systems. A large proportion of the agricultural land in the study area suffers from soil salinity and fertility deterioration due to repetitive agricultural practices and scarce water resources. The experiment aims to evaluate the efficiency of different tillage systems and the response of barley plants to seed and nano-phosphorus fertilizer under realistic conditions. The selection of these factors is also of practical importance, as the results obtained can be used to improve soil and crop management in salt-affected environments.

During the 2022-2023 wintertime agricultural season, an experiment was conducted in the Al-Qurna District, north of Basrah Governorate. The site is characterized by long, hot, arid summers and cool, dry winters’ climate, with an average temperature of 17.8°C during the experiment period and total rainfall during the growing season of approximately 58.7mm (local meteorological station). The aim was to study the effects of tillage systems, barley seed quantities and nano-phosphorus fertilizer application levels on barley growth and yield (Table 1). Before plow work, a samples of soil was gathered out of the field down to a deepness of 30 cm and several samples were mixed to produce a composite sample that accurately represents the field (Muhsin et al., 2021). Table 2 displays the findings of a soil analysis.




       
The nano-phosphorus fertilizer was a liquid fertilizer (Shock brand), 80% phosphorus. It was dissolved in water according to the concentration of each treatment (0, 1.25 and 2.5 ml/litter of water). Spraying was done at the tillering stage and the stem elongation stage. The nano-phosphorus fertilizer was sprayed early in the morning at a rate of 1 liter per experimental unit. A 20-liter sprayer was used for the spraying process and a spreader was added to the spray solution to increase the contact surface between the leaf surface and the solution.
       
The experiment was conducted in a split-split-plot arrangement using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. Tillage systems occupied the main plots, seed quantities occupied the subplots and nano-fertilizer application levels were distributed to the sub-sub-plots. Treatments were randomly distributed within each block, resulting in a total of 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 experimental units (54 experimental units). The Linear model was:
 

Y_ijkl = μ + ρ_i +T_i + ε_il + S_j + (TS)_ij + ε_ijl + F_k + (TF)_ik + (SF)_jk + (TSF)_ijk + ε_ijkl

 
Where,
Y_ijkl: Observation value.
μ: Overall mean.
ρ_l: Block effect.
T_i: Effect of tillage systems.
ε_il: Random error for main plots.
Sj: Effect of seed quantities.
(TS)_ij: Effect of interaction between tillage systems and seed quantities.
ε_ijl: Random error for split plots.
F_k: Effect of fertilizer.
(TF)_ik: Effect of interaction between tillage systems and fertilizer.
(SF)_jk: Effect of interaction between seed quantities and fertilizer.
(TSF)_ijk: Effect of interaction between tillage systems, seed quantities and fertilizer.
ε_ijkl: Random error for split-split plots.
       
The field was prepared for the experiment after tilling the soil according to each tillage treatment. Tillage was carried out using a three-bottom moldboard plow and a chisel plow. The field was leveled and allocated to 54 test plots. Each of the test plots had an area of twelve square meters. A 1 meter gap was left between test plots to guarantee that nearby test plots were not impacted. Additionally, a one-meter gap was maintained between replications. The experimental unit contained 15 lines, each 4 m long and 20 cm apart. Barley seeds were planted on November 12/2022. The field was also fertilized with 120 kg N/ha in the form of urea (46% nitrogen) in two batches, the first during the emergence stage and the second during the tillering stage. Before planting, potassium fertilizer was administered in one batch at 80 kg K/ha in the form of potassium sulfate (42% potassium). Traditional surface irrigation was used during the experiment, with two to three irrigations per month depending on plant needs and climatic conditions. Pulling weeds was completed as needed. Harvesting took place on April 12, 2023. The analyses were conducted in the laboratories of the College of Agriculture.
 
Statistical analysis
 
To confirm that the assumptions for the statistical analysis were met. Data normality was tested prior to performing the statistical analysis. Data were analyzed statistically using the GenStat 12^th Edition statistical software using analysis of variance and presented as x±standard error. The mean value were subjected to comparison via the least significant difference (LSD) at the probability threshold of 0.05.

Plant height
 
The results indicated differences in the tillage systems’ impact on plant height, with the moldboard plow registering the maximum value of 73.85 cm, while the chisel plow registered a low value of 67.26 cm (Table 3). The reason for the variation in plant height between tillage systems may be attributed to the fact that the moldboard plow turns the soil and buries crop residues below the surface, creating a cleaner bed for the seeds, especially in the early stages of growth. (Ramadhan, 2024) also indicated an increase in oat plant height by 9.823 and 6.838% under moldboard plow in clay and silty clay soils compared to plowing with a tiller.


       
Additionally, SR3 had the highest average plant height of 73.22 cm, with no significant difference from SR2. Meanwhile, SR1 had the lowest average plant height of 66.11 cm (Table 3). This can be explained by the fact that high seeding rates cause plants to compete for resources. These results corroborate the study by Singh and Sarlach (2022).
       
Table 3 showed a significant superiority of the Nf3 fertilizer level, with the peak a height of 73.22 cm, whereas the Nf1 level had low value of 66.11 cm. During crucial growth stages, a steady supply of nutrients is provided by applying nano-phosphorus fertilizer in two dosages. Phosphorus’s role in encouraging root development and boosting the absorption of more nitrogen (Boukhalfa-Deraoui et al., 2020; Jamir et al., 2025), which aids in cell elongation and division, may be the cause of the taller stems under Nf3 level.
 
Flag leaf area
 
Table 4’s findings demonstrated that the type of tillage used had a noteworthy impact on the average size of the flag leaf area. The chisel plow stood out with an average of 11.62 cm², than the moldboard plow, which averaged 6.28 cm².


       
The highest average for flag leaf area being the Nf3 level (10.48 cm²), the difference being not significant from the Nf2 level. The lowest average given by the Nf1 level was 7.58 cm² and was not significant from the Nf2 level. Increasing the supply of phosphorus by means of nano-phosphorus fertilizer, could increase the chlorophyll formation, the increased capability for photosynthesis, would add to increased leaf growth. The results are in agreement with those of Xaza’al Maaruf and Raheem (2024).
       
The treatment Chisel:SR2 produced the largest flag leaf area 13.13 cm², while Moldboard:SR3 produced the smallest value for this character 5.31 cm² but was not significantly different from the value for Moldboard:SR2 or Moldboard:SR1.
 
Number of spikes per square meter
 
The results in Table 5 indicated an important advantage for the tillage method of using a chisel plow; a remarkable number of spikes was produced, yielding a maximum of 175.22 spikes/m². In contrast, the moldboard plow gave a small value, only managed a 148.22 spikes/m². Chisel plows are designed with a view to producing a minimum disturbance of the soil at the same time effectively loosening compact layers. This gives a better soil structure in the regions where feeding roots are located, which are so important for root development and for the taking up of nutrition elements and water. Plants grown under such conditions are much more apt to produce good wheat spikes.


       
The SR2 seeding rate produced the highest average number of spikes, hitting 208.72 spikes/m², but it did not differ significantly from the rate SR3. On the other hand, the SR1 seeding rate had the lowest average, coming in at 92.83 spikes/m². The variation in spike numbers between the different seeding rates likely stems from variations in plant density. When plant density increases, the number of plants per unit area goes up, which results in more spikes count. These findings align with the conclusions drawn by Seadh et al., (2022).
       
The Nf3 fertilizer level stood out, achieving the top average of 210.94 spikes/m² and it didn’t show a significant difference compared to the Nf2 level. Meanwhile, the Nf1 level yielded the lowest average, reaching 119.61 spikes/m², without significantly differing from the Nf2 level. The use of nano-phosphorus fertilizers may promote better root growth, which improves nutrient and water absorption. Furthermore, increased uptake of nitrogen, which play a role in increasing plant vegetative growth, including the number of tillers, as well as reducing tiller mortality. These findings align with the work of Poudel et al., (2023).
 
Grain yield
 
Table 6 indicated that the grain yield produced by the chisel plow system was significantly superior, recording a maximum of 2395.83 kg/ha, compared to the grain yield produced by the moldboard plow system, which recorded the lowest average of 2115.73 kg/ha. Improving soil structure with chisel plows allows for better root penetration and development. Stronger root systems improve the aptitude of plants for absorbing nutrients and water, resulting in healthier and more productive plants. (Ebrahimian et al., 2022) found an increase in wheat yield under a chisel plow system compared to a moldboard plow system in silty-loam soil.


       
The SR2 recorded the highest grain yield, reaching 2,720.94 kg/ha, compared to the other rates, without a significant difference from the SR3 seeding rate. Meanwhile, the SR1 recorded the lowest grain yield, reaching 1,827.87 kg/ha, without a significant difference from the SR3 seeding rate. As the number of seeds planted increases to the optimum amount, plants count increases and there is often a rise in spike count. Therefore, grain yield increases under high plant density compared to lower and higher amounts. The results are in agreement with Islamzade et al., (2024).
       
Table 6 indicated that the grain yield produced by the Nf3 fertilizer level was significantly superior, recording a maximum of 3149.61 kg/ha, in comparison to Nf1 fertilizer level, which had the lowest average of 1542.97 kg/ha, without significantly differing from the Nf2 level. Phosphorus is essential for photosynthesis and energy transfer in plants and promotes better root growth (Kantwa et al., 2025). By providing sufficient phosphorus during critical growth stages, nanofertilizers enhance the efficiency of plant photosynthesis and energy storage, improve nutrient and water uptake, leading to better grain growth and increased grain yield. These findings are consistent with those reported by Taskin and Guneset (2023).
 
Biological yield
 
Table 7 demonstrated that the biological output produced by the moldboard plow system was much superior, recording greatest biological production of 9467.30 kg/ha, compared to chisel plow system, which recorded the lowest average of 8291.86 kg/ha. Even though the chisel plow’s advantages in fostering root growth and minimizing soil disturbance resulted in higher seed productivity, the moldboard plow’s capacity to produce a clean seedbed, redistribute nutrients and enhance moisture availability can all lead to higher biological yields.


       
The SR2 seeding rate gave the highest average biological output of 9,858.91 kg/ha, which was quite similar to the SR3 seeding rate, as Table 7 demonstrates. The SR1 seeding rate, on the other hand, had the lowest average of 8,083.60 kg/ha and was also didn’t show a significant difference from the SR3 rate. The total biomass rises as the number of plants increases in a given area in proportion to the number of seeds planted per unit area. Having more plants up to an optimal level also improves photosynthesis since higher overall canopy coverage results in higher photosynthetic efficiency. The results are consistent with those of Singh and Sarlach (2022).
       
The Nf3 level significantly outperformed all fertilization levels, yielding the highest average of 11,557.48 kg/ha, while the Nf1 yielded the lowest average of 6,696.11 kg/ha, without significantly differing from the Nf2 level (Table 7). Reducing nutrient loss due to leaching or surface runoff by adding nano-phosphorus fertilizers ensures more phosphorus is available to the plant over time, leading to better growth and increased biological yield. These results correspond to the conclusions of (Poudel et al., 2023).
 
Correlation analysis
 
The results showed that there are divergent relationships between the studied traits (Table 8). For example, a statistically significant and positive correlation is observed between grain yield and each of plant height, flag leaf area and number of spikes per square meter (0.420**, 0.295*, 0.817**, respectively). A statistically significant and positive correlation is also observed between biological yield and each of plant height, number of spikes per square meter and grain yield (0.446**, 0.717**, 0.884**, respectively). While some cases have been observed where strong or statistically significant relationships do not appear between some traits, this may be because some plant characteristics may have evolved independently of each other, resulting in a weak or insignificant correlation.


 
Soil penetration resistance
 
Table 9’s findings show that soil penetration resistance has significantly increased in the moldboard plow treatment, reaching 1563 MPa, while the chisel plow treatment yielded the lowest average, at 1426 MPa. This may be attributed to the role of the moldboard plow in cutting, turning and breaking up the soil layer, thus increasing its density and penetration resistance compared to the chisel plow, which loosens the soil with a lower degree of fragmentation of soil clumps.


               
The results in Table 9 indicate a significant increase in soil penetration resistance at harvest, reaching 1577 MPa, compared to the post-tillage penetration resistance value, which was 1411 MPa. Water from irrigation shuffles soil particles which might be causing them to gather in the pores, packing the soil, so, the soil gets denser.

The chisel plough was superior in relation to flag leaf area, number of spikes and grain yield due to the less resistance to soil penetration under the chisel plough compared to the moldboard plow. Seeding quantity SR3 was superior with regard to number of spikes, number of grains in spike, grain and biological yield. The Nf3 fertilizer level obtaining the greatest average across all examined indices. The highest means for flag leaf area derived from the Chisel: SR2 treatment. According to this study, combining chisel plowing with a seeding rate of 60 kg / ha and a concentration of nano phosphorus, 2.5 ml/liter, has resulted in promising crop yields in Silty Clay conditions in the Al-Qurna region. The results indicate that refining tillage methods, seeding rates and fertilizer applications could enhance barley production. Multi-season verification experiments would be a way to assess the long term effects of the application. Furthermore, examining the mobility of nano-phosphorus in the soil could shed light on how plants take it up.

Authors wish to convey their sincere appreciation to the College of Agriculture for the support they have provided.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this manuscript.