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volume 60 sustainable agricultural innovations for one health and environmental resilience : 58-66,   Doi: 10.18805/IJARe.AF-1089

Effect of Silicon Spraying on the Growth and Yield of Several Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.) Cultivars Grown in Desert Soils

K
Khawla Dawood1
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9716-2876
R
Rawafid H. Al-Obaidi1
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4436-2806
Y
Yaseen Obaid Noori Ahmed Sharif2,*
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2581-9448
1Department of Field Crops, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq.
2Department of Field Crops, College of Agriculture, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
Cite article:- Dawood Khawla, Al-Obaidi H. Rawafid, Sharif Ahmed Noori Obaid Yaseen (2026). Effect of Silicon Spraying on the Growth and Yield of Several Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.) Cultivars Grown in Desert Soils . Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 60: 58-66. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.AF-1089.

ABSTRACT

Background: Broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is an important legume crop, but its productivity in desert soils is often limited by adverse soil conditions. Silicon application may improve plant growth and yield under such conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the response of different broad bean cultivars to silicon spraying under desert soil conditions in Basrah, Iraq.

Methods: A field experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2024-2025 at Al-Faris Agricultural Research Station, Al-Zubair, Basrah (30.23°N, 47.42°E). The Trial was arranged a two-factors factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Three cultivars were evaluated: Spanish ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1), Dutch ‘Histal’ (V2) and a Local (V3), combined with three silicon concentrations: 0, 1.5 and 3 mL L-1 (Si1, Si2 and Si3, respectively).

Result: Cultivars and silicon treatments significantly affected all studied traits (P≤0.05). Main effect analysis revealed that Spanish cultivar ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1) significantly outperformed the other cultivars, recording the highest values for pod number (10.32 pod plant-1),100-seed weight (132.12 g) and total yield (4587 kg ha-1). Foliar application of silicon at 3 mL L-1 produced the highest overall values for pods per plant (10.04), seeds per pod (7.44), 100-seeds weight (129.38 g and total yield (4850 kg ha-1). The cultivar × silicon interaction was significant for several traits; specifically, the combination of Luz de Otono with 1.5 mL L-1 Si recorded the highest number of pods per plant (11.63), whereas no significant difference was observed between Luz de Otono’ and ‘Histal’ at 3 mL L-1 Si for 100-seeds weight (132.18 and 132.74 g, respectively) and total seed yield.

INTRODUCTION

Legumes are important components of sustainable agricultural systems because of their ability to improve soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation and enhance nutrient cycling. Their inclusion in crop rotation with cereals can reduce dependence on external nitrogen inputs and contribute to the sustainability and productivity of cropping systems (Alshamary et al., 2025). Among grain legumes, broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is an important winter crop with considerable nutritional and agronomic value. Its seeds contain approximately 25-40% protein and 48-54% carbohydrates, making it an important source of plant- based protein and energy (Karkanis et al., 2018; Dhull et al., 2022). In addition, its capacity for biological nitrogen fixation makes broad bean particularly valuable for improving soil fertility and maintaining nutrient availability within crop rotations (Sharif et al., 2026).
       
The importance of broad bean cultivation is increasing in regions affected by climate change, water scarcity, soil degradation and salinity. However, production in Iraq is constrained by several factors, including the deterioration of local genetic resources and limited adaptation of some introduced cultivation too local environmental conditions (El Hadj et al., 2022). These limitations are particularly relevant in desert and arid environments, where high temperatures, water deficits and salinity can occur simultaneously and adversely affect plant growth, photosynthetic activity, nutrient acquisition and biological nitrogen fixation (Ben Gaied et al., 2024).
       
Consequently, the identification of cultivars with superior adaptation to these environments, together with appropriate agronomic strategies for improving their stress tolerance, represents an important research priority.
       
Recent research has increasingly focused on the use of silicon a beneficial element for improving crop performance under abiotic stress. Silicon can enhance plant structural strength and contribute to stress tolerance through effects on cell wall stability, water relations, antioxidant activity and physiological processes associated with drought and salinity tolerance (Kumar et al., 2021). In broad bean, previous studies have reported positive effects of silicon application on growth and yield- related characteristics (Al-Badrawi et al., 2022). However, the response to silicon is not necessarily uniform among cultivars and its effectiveness may depend on the genetic background of the cultivar and the severity of prevailing environmental stress.
       
This knowledge gap is important because the identification of an effective silicon concentration cannot be considered independently of cultivar adaptation. A cultivar that is inherently better adapted to desert conditions may respond differently to silicon than a less-adapted cultivar and the most effective cultivar-silicon combination may therefore provide greater benefits than either factor consider separately. The novelty of the present study lies in evaluating the interactive response of different broad bean cultivars to graded silicon concentration under desert soil conditions, to identify a cultivar- silicon combination that can enhance crop productivity under abiotic stress. Such information may contribute to development of more efficient agronomic strategies for broad bean production in arid and desert environments and provide a basis for selecting cultivars and silicon management practices better suited to stress-prone agricultural systems. Although silicon application has been studied in broad bean under salt or drought stress, the cultivar-specific response to foliar silicon under hyper-arid, high-temperature and saline desert soil conditions of Basrah, southern Iraq, remains under- explored. Evaluating how modern introduced cultivars (such as Luz de Otono and Histal) compare with adapted local landrace under graded silicon application provides crucial insights into genotype- specific silicon uptake and utilization. The silicon concentrations (0,1.5 and 3 mL L-1) were selected based on preliminary dose-response field screening and commercial recommendations for Armurox to avoid osmotic shock while optimizing physiological stress relief.
       
Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the response of different broad bean cultivars grown under desert-soil conditions to different concentrations of silicon and to determine the most effective cultivar-silicon combination for improving growth, yield and yield- related characteristics under this condition.   

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field experiment was conducted during the 2024-2025 growing season at Al-Faris Agricultural Research Station, Al-Zubair District, Basrah, Iraq (30.23°N, 47.42°E). The experiment was arranged as a factorial experiment using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Each experimental unit measured 2 × 3 m (6 m2) and comprised 4 rows spaced 75cm apart with a 25 cm spacing between hills, leaving 1m alley between plots, with a 1 m gap between plots.
       
Three broad bean cultivars were evaluated: Spanish ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1), Dutch ‘Histal’ (V2) and a Local (V3). Plants were sprayed with three silicon concentrations: 0, 1.5 and 3 mL L-1 (Si1, Si2 and Si3, respectively). Silicon (8% SiO‚ ; commercial formulation ARMUROX) was applied as a foliar spray with Tween-20 (0.05% v/v) as a non- ionic surfactant to reduce surface tension and enhance absorption. Foliar application was carried out in two equals stages: the first at the vegetative branching stage and the second at the initiation of flowering.
       
Seeds were sown after soaking in distilled water for 12 hours, placing 2-3 seeds per hill. Two weeks after emergence, seedling were thinned to one healthy plant per hill. S standard agronomic practices, including drip irrigation and pest/ disease management, were uniformly applied. Basal fertilization included 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 60 kg ha-1 K2O applied prior to planting, whereas 45 N ha-1 was applied once at sowing.
       
Before planting, representative soil samples were collected from the upper layer (0-30 cm depth), air-dried, passed through a 2-mm sieve and analyzed for physical and chemical properties according to standard soil analysis procedure (Table 1).

Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of the soil of the experimental field (2024-2025).


 
The studied traits
 
At maturity, ten inner plants were randomly tagged from each experimental unit (excluding border rows) to determine physiological, vegetative, yield and quality traits:
  
Vegetative growth traits
 
- Plant height (cm): Measured from the soil surface to the plant apex using a measuring tape.
 
- Number of leaves and branches: counted as leaf plant-1 and branch plant-1.
 
- Leaf area (cm2): Measured for total leaf canopy per plant.
 
- Pod length: Measured average length of mature pods.
 
Photosynthetic pigments
 
Total chlorophyll and total carotenoids in green plant tissues (leaf) were extracted using 80% acetone according to the method described by Lichtenthaler (1987). Fresh leaf tissue (50 mg) was immersed in 10 mL of 80% acetone and stored in completely darkness at 4°C for 24 h until absorbance of extract was measured at 470, 646 and 663nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer. Pigment concentrations were calculated using the standard equation of Haque et al., (2021).
 
Components of yield and yield
 
Number of pods per plant (pods plant-1).
Number of seeds per pod (seeds pod-1).
Weight of 100 seeds (g)
Total seed yield (kg ha-1).
 
Crude seed protein content (%)
 
Estimated by determining total seed nitrogen via the micro-kjeldahl method using the standard conversion factor:
 
Crude protein (%) = Seed N (%) × 6.25
 
Statistical analysis
 
Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a factorial RCBD using statistical software. Treatment means were compared using the modified least significant difference (LSD) test at a significant level P≤0.05) as described by Al-Zubaidi and Al-Jubouri (2016).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ANOVA analysis
 
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) presented in Table 2 and 3 revealed significant variations among cultivars, silicon foliar treatments and their interaction for all evaluated vegetative, physiological and yield-related traits.

Table 2: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) expressed as mean squares.



Table 3: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) expressed as mean squares.


       
The main effect of cultivars showed highly significant differences (P≤0.01) for plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, number of branches, total chlorophyll content, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and 100-seed weight, while total yield and seed protein content were significantly affected at P≤0.05. These results indicate the presence of substantial genetic variation among the tested cultivars in terms of vegetative development, photosynthetic performance, yield components and seed quality attributes.
       
Foliar application of silicon exerted a highly significant effect (P≤0.01) across all evaluated traits, as evidenced by the mean square values. This highlights the influential role of exogenous silicon in stimulating cell elongation, leaf expansion, chlorophyll retention, photo assimilate translocation toward reproductive sinks and nitrogen assimilation during seed filling.
       
Furthermore, the interaction between cultivars and silicon foliar application was highly significant (P≤0.01) for plant height, leaf area, number of branches, pods per plant, 100-seed weight,  seed protein content, number of seeds per pod and total yield. This differential response confirms that silicon responsiveness is genotype-dependent, suggesting that specific cultivars were more efficiency, yield potential and seed nutrition quality.  
 
Vegetative growth traits
 
The analysis of variance revealed that foliar application of silicon significantly influenced the evaluated vegetative and physiological traits (Table 4).

Table 4: Main effects of spraying silicon on vegetative growth characteristics of Broad bean cultivars.


       
Among the evaluated silicon levels, application of 3 mL L-1 (Si3) recorded the highest mean values among the tested concentration for plant height (87.67 cm, total chlorophyll content (22.14 mg 100g-1 WF) and leaf area (1541.72 cm2). Conversely, the 1.5 mL L-1 concentration (Si2) produced highest average number of leaves per plant (96.03 leaves plant-1) and number per branches (8.54 branch plant-1). Additionally, as suggested in literature, silicon application might support tissue hydration, optimize nutrient status (such as potassium absorption) and protect chlorophyll stability under stress conditions (Desoky et al., 2020), although direct physiological verification remains to be confirmed.
       
Regarding genotypic variation, the cultivar Luz de otono demonstrated statistically superior performance (Table 4), achieving the highest average for leaf chlorophyll content (22.17 mg 100 g-1 FW), leaf number (99.12 leaves plant-1) and leaf area (2434.15 cm2).
       
This advantage is likely attributable to inherent genetic differences governing photosynthetic potential and endogenous phytohormone regulation (especially cytokinin) and radiation-use efficiency under desert soil environment (Atab et al., 2023). These finding align with previous observations by Alshummary et al., (2021) and Merhij and Al-Khafaji (2023).  
       
The interaction between cultivars and silicon levels significantly affected all evaluated vegetative parameters in plant height, leaf area and branch number, while maintaining statistical at P≤0.05 for leaf number and chlorophyll content. The cultivar Histal supplied with either 1.5 or 3 mL L-1 silicon (Fig 1) achieved the maximum plant height (89.54 cm), whereas the unsprayed local recorded the lowest mean. 

Fig 1: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on plant height, (LSD 0.05 = 3.32).


       
Furthermore, the combination of Luz de otono and Histal at 3 mL L-1 silicon recorded the highest averages for leaf chlorophyll content (22.19 and 20.15 mg 100g-1 FW, Fig 2), leaf number (87.19 and 85.48 leaves plant-1, Fig 3) and leaf area (2792,78 and 2686.57 cm2, Fig 4) respectively. The treatment combination Luz de otono at 1.5 mL L-1 silicon yielded the highest branch number (8.41 branches plant-1, Fig 5).

Fig 2: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on Total chlorophyll (mg 100 g FW-1). (LSD 0.05=4.09).



Fig 3: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on leaf number, (LSD 0.05=0.88).



Fig 4: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on leaf area, (LSD 0.05 = 102.62).



Fig 5: Effect of interaction between cultivars and Silicon levels on number of branches, (LSD 0.05=0.59).


 
Yield and yield components
 
The results presented in Table 5 reveal that cultivars, silicon concentration and their interaction significantly influenced overall yield and its components.

Table 5: Main effects of spraying silicon on components of yield and yield characteristics of broad bean cultivars.


       
Regarding the main effect of silicon, the third level (3 mL L-1) demonstrated clear superiority, achieving the highest mean values across all evaluated traits: number of pods per plant (10.04 pods plant-1), number of seeds per pod (7.44 seed pod-1), 100-seed weight (129.38 g), total yield (4850.00 kg ha-1) and protein percentage (24.66%). The enhancement of yield and its attributes under elevated silicon levels can be attributed to improved vegetative growth metrics (Table 5), greater nutrient uptake efficiency and enhanced photosynthetic activity. This improvement positively influenced the translocation and accumulation of photo assimilates and total dry matter, a pattern consistent with the finding of Ben Gaied et al. (2024).
       
Among test cultivars Luz de otono exhibited significant superiority in pod number per plant (10.32 pods plant-1), 100-seed weight (132.12 g), total yield (4587.00 kg ha-1) and seed protein content (24.35%). Variation in yield components among cultivars likely stem can be linked to higher branch density, leaf number and expanded leaf area (Table 5), which together supply the necessary assimilate sinks for reproductive development (flowering and pod setting). Consequently, this improved the number of seeds per pod and individual seed mass. These observation align with those reported by Alshameri et al., (2021); Aleuzayr and Abdulqader (2024); Merhij et al., (2024); Madab et al., (2025); Hindi et al., (2026a); Hindi et al., (2026b); Ali et al., (2025) and Saleh et al., (2026).
       
Concerning interaction effects, Fig 6 and 7 indicate that applying 1.5 mL L-1 silicon (the second concentration) to Luz de otono produced the highest values for pod number (11.63 pod plant-1) and seeds per pod (5.89 seeds pod-1). Meanwhile, no significant differences were observed between Luz de otono and Histal at highest silicon level (3 mL L-1) regarding 100-seed weight, averaging 132.18 g and 132.74 g, respectively (Fig 8).  Similarly, both cultivars showed comparable performances at 3 mL L-1 silicon in terms of total yield, reaching 4873.32 kg ha-1 and 4843.83 kg ha-1 respectivly (Fig 9). Lastly, the combination of Luz de otono with 3 mL L-1 silicon yielded the highest seed protein percentage (25.25, Fig 10).

Fig 6: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on number of pods. (LSD 0.05= 1.33).



Fig 7: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on number of seeds per pod. (LSD0.05= 1.47).



Fig 8: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on weight of 100 seeds. (LSD 0.05= 22.34).



Fig 9: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on total yield. (LSD 0.05= 190.41).



Fig 10: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on protein content. (LSD 0.05 = 2.65).

CONCLUSION

This research demonstrates that adding silicon to broad bean production systems is an effective tool for improving biological and productive performance across multiple varieties, with clear variation in cultivar responses and a significant cultivar-treatment interaction. Overall, silicon was associated with improved growth and photosynthetic indicators. The response was most pronounced in environments with moderate stress and in varieties with a higher silicon utilization capacity. The 1.5 ml L-1 treatment and the Loz de otono cultivar showed the highest average number of pods per plant and the cultivar Histal showed the highest average in number of seeds per pod. The 3 ml L-1 treatment, using the Loz de otono and Histal varieties, showed superior results in 100-seed weight and total yield per unit area. The 3 ml L-1 treatment and the Loz de otono cultivar also showed superior results in the percentage of protein content.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge the support provided by the University of Basrah-College of Agriculture and the Department of Field Crops, which enabled the completion of this study.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this work.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Effect of Silicon Spraying on the Growth and Yield of Several Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.) Cultivars Grown in Desert Soils

    K
    Khawla Dawood1
    https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9716-2876
    R
    Rawafid H. Al-Obaidi1
    https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4436-2806
    Y
    Yaseen Obaid Noori Ahmed Sharif2,*
    https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2581-9448
    1Department of Field Crops, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq.
    2Department of Field Crops, College of Agriculture, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq.
    Cite article:- Dawood Khawla, Al-Obaidi H. Rawafid, Sharif Ahmed Noori Obaid Yaseen (2026). Effect of Silicon Spraying on the Growth and Yield of Several Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.) Cultivars Grown in Desert Soils . Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 60: 58-66. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.AF-1089.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is an important legume crop, but its productivity in desert soils is often limited by adverse soil conditions. Silicon application may improve plant growth and yield under such conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the response of different broad bean cultivars to silicon spraying under desert soil conditions in Basrah, Iraq.

    Methods: A field experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2024-2025 at Al-Faris Agricultural Research Station, Al-Zubair, Basrah (30.23°N, 47.42°E). The Trial was arranged a two-factors factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Three cultivars were evaluated: Spanish ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1), Dutch ‘Histal’ (V2) and a Local (V3), combined with three silicon concentrations: 0, 1.5 and 3 mL L-1 (Si1, Si2 and Si3, respectively).

    Result: Cultivars and silicon treatments significantly affected all studied traits (P≤0.05). Main effect analysis revealed that Spanish cultivar ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1) significantly outperformed the other cultivars, recording the highest values for pod number (10.32 pod plant-1),100-seed weight (132.12 g) and total yield (4587 kg ha-1). Foliar application of silicon at 3 mL L-1 produced the highest overall values for pods per plant (10.04), seeds per pod (7.44), 100-seeds weight (129.38 g and total yield (4850 kg ha-1). The cultivar × silicon interaction was significant for several traits; specifically, the combination of Luz de Otono with 1.5 mL L-1 Si recorded the highest number of pods per plant (11.63), whereas no significant difference was observed between Luz de Otono’ and ‘Histal’ at 3 mL L-1 Si for 100-seeds weight (132.18 and 132.74 g, respectively) and total seed yield.

    INTRODUCTION

    Legumes are important components of sustainable agricultural systems because of their ability to improve soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation and enhance nutrient cycling. Their inclusion in crop rotation with cereals can reduce dependence on external nitrogen inputs and contribute to the sustainability and productivity of cropping systems (Alshamary et al., 2025). Among grain legumes, broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is an important winter crop with considerable nutritional and agronomic value. Its seeds contain approximately 25-40% protein and 48-54% carbohydrates, making it an important source of plant- based protein and energy (Karkanis et al., 2018; Dhull et al., 2022). In addition, its capacity for biological nitrogen fixation makes broad bean particularly valuable for improving soil fertility and maintaining nutrient availability within crop rotations (Sharif et al., 2026).
           
    The importance of broad bean cultivation is increasing in regions affected by climate change, water scarcity, soil degradation and salinity. However, production in Iraq is constrained by several factors, including the deterioration of local genetic resources and limited adaptation of some introduced cultivation too local environmental conditions (El Hadj et al., 2022). These limitations are particularly relevant in desert and arid environments, where high temperatures, water deficits and salinity can occur simultaneously and adversely affect plant growth, photosynthetic activity, nutrient acquisition and biological nitrogen fixation (Ben Gaied et al., 2024).
           
    Consequently, the identification of cultivars with superior adaptation to these environments, together with appropriate agronomic strategies for improving their stress tolerance, represents an important research priority.
           
    Recent research has increasingly focused on the use of silicon a beneficial element for improving crop performance under abiotic stress. Silicon can enhance plant structural strength and contribute to stress tolerance through effects on cell wall stability, water relations, antioxidant activity and physiological processes associated with drought and salinity tolerance (Kumar et al., 2021). In broad bean, previous studies have reported positive effects of silicon application on growth and yield- related characteristics (Al-Badrawi et al., 2022). However, the response to silicon is not necessarily uniform among cultivars and its effectiveness may depend on the genetic background of the cultivar and the severity of prevailing environmental stress.
           
    This knowledge gap is important because the identification of an effective silicon concentration cannot be considered independently of cultivar adaptation. A cultivar that is inherently better adapted to desert conditions may respond differently to silicon than a less-adapted cultivar and the most effective cultivar-silicon combination may therefore provide greater benefits than either factor consider separately. The novelty of the present study lies in evaluating the interactive response of different broad bean cultivars to graded silicon concentration under desert soil conditions, to identify a cultivar- silicon combination that can enhance crop productivity under abiotic stress. Such information may contribute to development of more efficient agronomic strategies for broad bean production in arid and desert environments and provide a basis for selecting cultivars and silicon management practices better suited to stress-prone agricultural systems. Although silicon application has been studied in broad bean under salt or drought stress, the cultivar-specific response to foliar silicon under hyper-arid, high-temperature and saline desert soil conditions of Basrah, southern Iraq, remains under- explored. Evaluating how modern introduced cultivars (such as Luz de Otono and Histal) compare with adapted local landrace under graded silicon application provides crucial insights into genotype- specific silicon uptake and utilization. The silicon concentrations (0,1.5 and 3 mL L-1) were selected based on preliminary dose-response field screening and commercial recommendations for Armurox to avoid osmotic shock while optimizing physiological stress relief.
           
    Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the response of different broad bean cultivars grown under desert-soil conditions to different concentrations of silicon and to determine the most effective cultivar-silicon combination for improving growth, yield and yield- related characteristics under this condition.   

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    A field experiment was conducted during the 2024-2025 growing season at Al-Faris Agricultural Research Station, Al-Zubair District, Basrah, Iraq (30.23°N, 47.42°E). The experiment was arranged as a factorial experiment using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Each experimental unit measured 2 × 3 m (6 m2) and comprised 4 rows spaced 75cm apart with a 25 cm spacing between hills, leaving 1m alley between plots, with a 1 m gap between plots.
           
    Three broad bean cultivars were evaluated: Spanish ‘Luz de Otono’ (V1), Dutch ‘Histal’ (V2) and a Local (V3). Plants were sprayed with three silicon concentrations: 0, 1.5 and 3 mL L-1 (Si1, Si2 and Si3, respectively). Silicon (8% SiO‚ ; commercial formulation ARMUROX) was applied as a foliar spray with Tween-20 (0.05% v/v) as a non- ionic surfactant to reduce surface tension and enhance absorption. Foliar application was carried out in two equals stages: the first at the vegetative branching stage and the second at the initiation of flowering.
           
    Seeds were sown after soaking in distilled water for 12 hours, placing 2-3 seeds per hill. Two weeks after emergence, seedling were thinned to one healthy plant per hill. S standard agronomic practices, including drip irrigation and pest/ disease management, were uniformly applied. Basal fertilization included 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 60 kg ha-1 K2O applied prior to planting, whereas 45 N ha-1 was applied once at sowing.
           
    Before planting, representative soil samples were collected from the upper layer (0-30 cm depth), air-dried, passed through a 2-mm sieve and analyzed for physical and chemical properties according to standard soil analysis procedure (Table 1).

    Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of the soil of the experimental field (2024-2025).


     
    The studied traits
     
    At maturity, ten inner plants were randomly tagged from each experimental unit (excluding border rows) to determine physiological, vegetative, yield and quality traits:
      
    Vegetative growth traits
     
    - Plant height (cm): Measured from the soil surface to the plant apex using a measuring tape.
     
    - Number of leaves and branches: counted as leaf plant-1 and branch plant-1.
     
    - Leaf area (cm2): Measured for total leaf canopy per plant.
     
    - Pod length: Measured average length of mature pods.
     
    Photosynthetic pigments
     
    Total chlorophyll and total carotenoids in green plant tissues (leaf) were extracted using 80% acetone according to the method described by Lichtenthaler (1987). Fresh leaf tissue (50 mg) was immersed in 10 mL of 80% acetone and stored in completely darkness at 4°C for 24 h until absorbance of extract was measured at 470, 646 and 663nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer. Pigment concentrations were calculated using the standard equation of Haque et al., (2021).
     
    Components of yield and yield
     
    Number of pods per plant (pods plant-1).
    Number of seeds per pod (seeds pod-1).
    Weight of 100 seeds (g)
    Total seed yield (kg ha-1).
     
    Crude seed protein content (%)
     
    Estimated by determining total seed nitrogen via the micro-kjeldahl method using the standard conversion factor:
     
    Crude protein (%) = Seed N (%) × 6.25
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a factorial RCBD using statistical software. Treatment means were compared using the modified least significant difference (LSD) test at a significant level P≤0.05) as described by Al-Zubaidi and Al-Jubouri (2016).

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    ANOVA analysis
     
    The analysis of variance (ANOVA) presented in Table 2 and 3 revealed significant variations among cultivars, silicon foliar treatments and their interaction for all evaluated vegetative, physiological and yield-related traits.

    Table 2: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) expressed as mean squares.



    Table 3: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) expressed as mean squares.


           
    The main effect of cultivars showed highly significant differences (P≤0.01) for plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, number of branches, total chlorophyll content, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and 100-seed weight, while total yield and seed protein content were significantly affected at P≤0.05. These results indicate the presence of substantial genetic variation among the tested cultivars in terms of vegetative development, photosynthetic performance, yield components and seed quality attributes.
           
    Foliar application of silicon exerted a highly significant effect (P≤0.01) across all evaluated traits, as evidenced by the mean square values. This highlights the influential role of exogenous silicon in stimulating cell elongation, leaf expansion, chlorophyll retention, photo assimilate translocation toward reproductive sinks and nitrogen assimilation during seed filling.
           
    Furthermore, the interaction between cultivars and silicon foliar application was highly significant (P≤0.01) for plant height, leaf area, number of branches, pods per plant, 100-seed weight,  seed protein content, number of seeds per pod and total yield. This differential response confirms that silicon responsiveness is genotype-dependent, suggesting that specific cultivars were more efficiency, yield potential and seed nutrition quality.  
     
    Vegetative growth traits
     
    The analysis of variance revealed that foliar application of silicon significantly influenced the evaluated vegetative and physiological traits (Table 4).

    Table 4: Main effects of spraying silicon on vegetative growth characteristics of Broad bean cultivars.


           
    Among the evaluated silicon levels, application of 3 mL L-1 (Si3) recorded the highest mean values among the tested concentration for plant height (87.67 cm, total chlorophyll content (22.14 mg 100g-1 WF) and leaf area (1541.72 cm2). Conversely, the 1.5 mL L-1 concentration (Si2) produced highest average number of leaves per plant (96.03 leaves plant-1) and number per branches (8.54 branch plant-1). Additionally, as suggested in literature, silicon application might support tissue hydration, optimize nutrient status (such as potassium absorption) and protect chlorophyll stability under stress conditions (Desoky et al., 2020), although direct physiological verification remains to be confirmed.
           
    Regarding genotypic variation, the cultivar Luz de otono demonstrated statistically superior performance (Table 4), achieving the highest average for leaf chlorophyll content (22.17 mg 100 g-1 FW), leaf number (99.12 leaves plant-1) and leaf area (2434.15 cm2).
           
    This advantage is likely attributable to inherent genetic differences governing photosynthetic potential and endogenous phytohormone regulation (especially cytokinin) and radiation-use efficiency under desert soil environment (Atab et al., 2023). These finding align with previous observations by Alshummary et al., (2021) and Merhij and Al-Khafaji (2023).  
           
    The interaction between cultivars and silicon levels significantly affected all evaluated vegetative parameters in plant height, leaf area and branch number, while maintaining statistical at P≤0.05 for leaf number and chlorophyll content. The cultivar Histal supplied with either 1.5 or 3 mL L-1 silicon (Fig 1) achieved the maximum plant height (89.54 cm), whereas the unsprayed local recorded the lowest mean. 

    Fig 1: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on plant height, (LSD 0.05 = 3.32).


           
    Furthermore, the combination of Luz de otono and Histal at 3 mL L-1 silicon recorded the highest averages for leaf chlorophyll content (22.19 and 20.15 mg 100g-1 FW, Fig 2), leaf number (87.19 and 85.48 leaves plant-1, Fig 3) and leaf area (2792,78 and 2686.57 cm2, Fig 4) respectively. The treatment combination Luz de otono at 1.5 mL L-1 silicon yielded the highest branch number (8.41 branches plant-1, Fig 5).

    Fig 2: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on Total chlorophyll (mg 100 g FW-1). (LSD 0.05=4.09).



    Fig 3: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on leaf number, (LSD 0.05=0.88).



    Fig 4: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on leaf area, (LSD 0.05 = 102.62).



    Fig 5: Effect of interaction between cultivars and Silicon levels on number of branches, (LSD 0.05=0.59).


     
    Yield and yield components
     
    The results presented in Table 5 reveal that cultivars, silicon concentration and their interaction significantly influenced overall yield and its components.

    Table 5: Main effects of spraying silicon on components of yield and yield characteristics of broad bean cultivars.


           
    Regarding the main effect of silicon, the third level (3 mL L-1) demonstrated clear superiority, achieving the highest mean values across all evaluated traits: number of pods per plant (10.04 pods plant-1), number of seeds per pod (7.44 seed pod-1), 100-seed weight (129.38 g), total yield (4850.00 kg ha-1) and protein percentage (24.66%). The enhancement of yield and its attributes under elevated silicon levels can be attributed to improved vegetative growth metrics (Table 5), greater nutrient uptake efficiency and enhanced photosynthetic activity. This improvement positively influenced the translocation and accumulation of photo assimilates and total dry matter, a pattern consistent with the finding of Ben Gaied et al. (2024).
           
    Among test cultivars Luz de otono exhibited significant superiority in pod number per plant (10.32 pods plant-1), 100-seed weight (132.12 g), total yield (4587.00 kg ha-1) and seed protein content (24.35%). Variation in yield components among cultivars likely stem can be linked to higher branch density, leaf number and expanded leaf area (Table 5), which together supply the necessary assimilate sinks for reproductive development (flowering and pod setting). Consequently, this improved the number of seeds per pod and individual seed mass. These observation align with those reported by Alshameri et al., (2021); Aleuzayr and Abdulqader (2024); Merhij et al., (2024); Madab et al., (2025); Hindi et al., (2026a); Hindi et al., (2026b); Ali et al., (2025) and Saleh et al., (2026).
           
    Concerning interaction effects, Fig 6 and 7 indicate that applying 1.5 mL L-1 silicon (the second concentration) to Luz de otono produced the highest values for pod number (11.63 pod plant-1) and seeds per pod (5.89 seeds pod-1). Meanwhile, no significant differences were observed between Luz de otono and Histal at highest silicon level (3 mL L-1) regarding 100-seed weight, averaging 132.18 g and 132.74 g, respectively (Fig 8).  Similarly, both cultivars showed comparable performances at 3 mL L-1 silicon in terms of total yield, reaching 4873.32 kg ha-1 and 4843.83 kg ha-1 respectivly (Fig 9). Lastly, the combination of Luz de otono with 3 mL L-1 silicon yielded the highest seed protein percentage (25.25, Fig 10).

    Fig 6: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on number of pods. (LSD 0.05= 1.33).



    Fig 7: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on number of seeds per pod. (LSD0.05= 1.47).



    Fig 8: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on weight of 100 seeds. (LSD 0.05= 22.34).



    Fig 9: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on total yield. (LSD 0.05= 190.41).



    Fig 10: Effect of interaction between cultivars and silicon levels on protein content. (LSD 0.05 = 2.65).

    CONCLUSION

    This research demonstrates that adding silicon to broad bean production systems is an effective tool for improving biological and productive performance across multiple varieties, with clear variation in cultivar responses and a significant cultivar-treatment interaction. Overall, silicon was associated with improved growth and photosynthetic indicators. The response was most pronounced in environments with moderate stress and in varieties with a higher silicon utilization capacity. The 1.5 ml L-1 treatment and the Loz de otono cultivar showed the highest average number of pods per plant and the cultivar Histal showed the highest average in number of seeds per pod. The 3 ml L-1 treatment, using the Loz de otono and Histal varieties, showed superior results in 100-seed weight and total yield per unit area. The 3 ml L-1 treatment and the Loz de otono cultivar also showed superior results in the percentage of protein content.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors acknowledge the support provided by the University of Basrah-College of Agriculture and the Department of Field Crops, which enabled the completion of this study.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with this work.

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