Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Full Research Article

Comparative Study of Airpot and Conventional Containers- root Phenotyping with RhizoVision Explorer Software

T
T.S.K. Ekashwaran1
S
S. Anandhi1,*
S
S. Shakila1
R
R. Nagajothi2
K
K. Anbukkarasi3
1Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
2Section of Biochemistry and Crop Physiology, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
3Department of Nature Resource Management, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Container design plays a vital role in nursery production as it influences overall plant quality and field establishment. Conventional containers often induce root circling and deformation, while air root pruning containers increase the number of descending roots. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare root pruning container and traditional container production systems on the growth and root architecture of Tabernaemontana divaricata (Dwarf).

Methods: The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with six treatments and three replications. Six 10-inch height containers were tested in this experiment: Brown plastic pot, black plastic pot, airpot, growbag, black polybag and white polybag. Two-month-old plants were grown in a medium of red soil, vermicompost and cocopeat enriched with biofertilizers. Growth, biomass and root parameters were recorded at 120 days after planting and root architecture was analyzed using RhizoVision Explorer software.

Result: Airpot (T3) recorded superior shoot growth with maximum plant height (28.95 cm), stem diameter (10.54 mm), inflorescence per plant (6.66), number of branches/plant (58.00), number of leaves/branch (16.30), leaf area (2.49 cm2), chlorophyll content (52.13), shoot fresh weight (49.4 3 g), shoot dry weight (11.15 g) and shoot dry matter content (22.55 %). Root phenotyping revealed greater root spread, total root length, root tips and branching points in growbag, while the black plastic pot recorded higher root volume and root biomass. Airpot containers minimized root circling and produced better quality nursery plants of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

INTRODUCTION

In contemporary horticulture, size, shape and material of the container have a major impact on the growth and development of plants in containerized plant production systems. Plant biomass output, physiological function and nutrient uptake efficiency are ultimately influenced by these parameters, which also have an impact on root development and the root-zone environment. Although they are frequently used in plant production, traditional nursery containers like plastic pots and polybags frequently produce unfavorable circumstances for root development resulting in root distortion, circling and poor plant establishment following transplanting (Pokhrel and Albrecht, 2024).
       
Modified container technologies, such air-pruning containers, have been created to improve root architecture in order to overcome these problems. The root tips of these containers are exposed to air through holes or perforations in their walls, which naturally prunes the root apex. A dense and fibrous root system is the outcome of this process, which disrupts apical dominance and encourages the growth of many lateral roots (Elsysy and Einhorn, 2022). Additionally, air-pruning containers promote even root distribution and avoid root-bound problems that are frequently seen in traditional containers (Singh et al., 2024). A demonstrable growth advantage after transplanting perennial plants produced in air-pruning containers was purportedly due to a combination of greater absorptive capacity and limited transplant disturbance of their root systems compared to plants produced by alternative production methods.
       
Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R. Br. ex. Roem. and Schult., also known as Crape Jasmine or pin wheel jasmine or milk flower, is a perennial evergreen shrub native to India and is extensively cultivated throughout South-East Asia and warm regions of continental Asia. Because of its eye-catching blossoms and bushy look, the dwarf variety is often favored for hedges and displays.
       
The ornamental plants’ aesthetic value is enhanced by the containers, which are essential to plant and root growth. With a focus on the effectiveness of air-pruning containers in comparison to traditional nursery containers, the current study was carried out to compare the influence of conventional containers and the air pruning containers on the growth and root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An experiment to study the effect of different plant growing containers on shoot growth and root architecture was conducted during the year 2025-26 at SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, Chengalpattu. The location is situated between the latitudes of 12°23′19.7″N and the longitudes of 79°44′37.4″E, with an average altitude of 50 m and a relative humidity of 50 to 70 per cent. The average temperature in the area ranged from 23°C to 38°C during the study period. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with six treatments and three replications. The treatment comprises of different containers of 10-inch size: T1- Brown pot, T2- Black pot, T3- Airpot, T4- Growbag, T5- Black polybag, T6- White polybag. Uniform, healthy, disease-free, 2-month-old Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf plants were planted in different containers filled with red soil: Vermicompost: Cocopeat (2:1:1). The growing media in each container were enriched with 20 grams each of Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens  and Azospirillum. The shoot and root characteristics were recorded on the 120th day of planting. Root morphological parameters were also analyzed using RhizoVision Explorer (version 2.0.3) software (Seethepalli et al., 2021) after 120 days of planting. The data collected were subjected to ANOVA as per the design using statistical software (OPSTAT/R). Significant differences among treatments were assessed using the F-test and means were compared using CD at 5% level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of containers on shoot characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf
 
In the present study, shoot parameters of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf recorded on 120 days of planting were significantly influenced by the type of containers used for cultivation (Table 1).

Table 1: Effect of containers on shoot characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf (120 DAS).


       
The highest plant height (28.95 cm) was recorded in T3 (Airpot), which was statistically on par with T4 (Growbag) (28.83 cm). The lowest plant height (24.33 cm) was observed in T5 (Black polybag). Stem diameter at 120 DAP ranged from 8.83 mm to 10.54 mm across the treatments, which was statistically non significant. The maximum stem diameter was observed in T3 (Air pot) (10.54 mm), followed by T4 (Growbag) (10.38 mm) and T1 (Brown plastic pot) (10.33 mm). Among all treatments, plants grown in the T3 (Airpot) consistently performed better, producing the highest number of branches (58.00), along with more number of leaves per branch (16.30) and greater leaf area (2.49 cm2). On the other hand, comparatively lesser branches (33.00) were recorded in treatments such as T5 (Black polybag), while no. of leaf/branch (12.33) and leaf area (1.49 cm2) were lesser in T6 (White polybag). A significant variation was observed in the number of inflorescence produced per plant. The highest number of inflorescence was recorded in T3 (Airpot) (6.66), which was significantly higher than other treatments and statistically superior to T5 (Black polybag) (3.33) and T6 (White polybag) (3.11). The highest chlorophyll content was recorded in T3 (Airpot) with 52.13 SPAD units, followed by T4 (Growbag) (48.53) and T2 (Black plastic pot) (48.16). In contrast, the lowest chlorophyll content was observed in T6 (White polybag) (27.83), followed by T1 (Brown plastic pot) (30.63). The treatment T3 (Airpot) recorded maximum shoot fresh weight (49.43 g) and dry weight (11.15 g), while T5 (Black polybag) recorded minimum shoot fresh (17.49 g) and dry weight  (4.08 g). The shoot dry matter content ranged from 22.55% to 37.09%, with the highest and lowest value recorded in T1 (Brown plastic pot) and T3 (Airpot) respectively.
 
Effect of containers on root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata dwarf
 
The root growth characteristics of Tabernaemontana plants were significantly influenced by the type of container used for cultivation (Table 2). The highest root volume was recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot) (120.00 cm3), followed by T1 (Brown plastic pot) (87.00 cm3) and the lowest (19.00 cm3) recorded in T6 (Whitepoly bag). The treatment T2 (Black plastic pot) recorded maximum root fresh weight (81.22 g) and dry weight (30.22 g), while T6 (White polybag) recorded minimum root fresh (13.90 g) and dry weight (2.90 g). The root dry matter content ranged from 16.50% to 37.20%, with the highest value recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot). The highest root:shoot ratio was observed in T2 (Black plastic pot) (2.85), while the lowest root:shoot ratio was observed in T6 (White polybag) (0.45).

Table 2: Effect of containers on root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf (120 DAS).


 
Root phenotyping using the rhizoVision explorer software
 
Among the root parameters analyzed using software (Table 3), the maximum values for root spread (26.8 cm), total root length (19763.20 cm), number of root tips (10069), number of branch points (12063.00) and root perimeter (10552.30 cm2) were recorded in T4 (Growbag) while, the maximum values for root length (65.40 cm) and branching frequency (0.13 mm-1) was recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot). The lowest values for root length (28.00 cm), root spread (15.30 cm), root diameter (0.90 mm), total root length (4578.34 cm), branching frequency (0.053 mm-1), number of root tips (3062.00), number of branch points (2257.00) and root perimeter (3275.04 cm2), total root length ≤0.4 mm (4061.75 mm) were recorded in T6 (White polybag). The treatment T3 (Airpot) recorded a root length (43.60 cm), root spread (21.40 cm), root diameter (1.73 mm), total root length (14566.01 cm), branching frequency (0.099 mm-1), number of root tips (6345.00), number of branch points (6362.00) and root perimeter (6147.60 cm2), total root length ≤0.4 mm (10568.65 mm).

Table 3: Root phenotyping of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf using the RhizoVision Explorer software (120 DAP).


       
The success of plant growth in the nursery and cultivation is greatly influenced by the design of the container. The purpose of this study is to investigate different containers, their distinctive qualities and how they affect Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf root properties and plant growth and development. Additionally, this study highlights the significance of container type and design in influencing root development and plant performance as it is the first report on root architectural attributes influenced by various container types. Containers affect root system development and architecture (Heiskanen and Rikala, 1998; Chirino et al., 2008) growth and biomass allocation (Tsakaldimi et al., 2005; Gilman et al., 2010; Dumroese et al., 2011).
 
Impact of containers on shoot characteristics
 
The airpot container (T3) outperformed the other treatments in the following shoot parameters: plant height (28.95 cm), stem diameter (10.54 mm), inflorescence per plant (6.66), root: Shoot ratio (0.55), number of branches/plant(58.00), number of leaves/branch (16.30), leaf area (2.49 cm2), chlorophyll content (52.13), shoot fresh weight (49.43 g), shoot dry weight (11.15 g) and shoot dry mater content (22.55%). This is in line with the findings of Pinto et al., (2011) and Bühler et al. (2012), that container parameters affect sapling growth and development and, consequently, the quality of saplings produced.  The increased ability of tiny roots to absorb available water and nutrients may be the cause of the overall improvement in the shoot properties of plants cultivated in air pots. This result is consistent with Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) and Bouma et al., (2001).
       
The improved shoot features in this study were concordant with those reported by Mariotti et al., (2015), who reported that container configuration significantly affected the growth and development of seedlings of Quercus robur and Juglans regia. According to several research (Annapurna et al., 2004; Poorter et al., 2012), the size and form of the container affect plant biomass and its distribution; hence, the saplings generated in this manner have an effect on the field establishment upon transplanting (Chirino et al., 2008). According to Wilson and Jacobs (2006), this study emphasizes some characteristics of saplings that should be taken into account because they are likely to impact the performance when planting out.
       
The superior growth performance of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) grown in air-pot containers in the current study demonstrated that greater nutrient uptake and root-zone aeration in air-pot containers may be responsible for improved shoot growth. Airpots’ perforated structure improves root respiration and nutrient absorption by preventing water logging in the growing medium and facilitating improved oxygen diffusion. Singh et al., (2024) found similar results, showing that Buxus sempervirens, Lawsonia inermis, Murraya paniculata, Schefflera arboricola and Tecoma stans plants grown in airpots had far greater shoot biomass, collar diameter and plant height than those planted in polybags.
       
The results of this study are in line with those of Simshaw et al., (2015), who found that the dry weights of Amelanchier × grandiflora ‘Cole’s Select’ and Rhus aromatica ‘Gro Low’, shoots in the airpots (T3) were around 66% higher than those in the Smart Pot (298 g). The findings of Tsakaldimi et al., (2005), Gilman et al., (2010) and Dumroese et al., (2011) that containers affect plant development and biomass allocation comply with the greater biomass found in this study. Given its correlation with field performance in semi-arid settings (Leiva and Fernandez-Ales, 1998; Villar-Salvador et al., 2004), the shoot/root ratio is a crucial characteristic for hardwood seedling quality evaluation (Wilson and Jacobs, 2006). Because of its greatest root length and fresh weight, the T2 (Black plastic pot) in the current study had the highest shoot-root ratio. Similar report was given by Kalsi et al., (2025).

Impact of containers on root characteristics
 
The total root volume for air-pruning containers was significantly greater among the manually measured root parameters in this investigation, which is corresponding to the results of Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) in apple cultivars Gala and Honey crisp at the end of the season. In the same way, the treatment T2 (Black plastic pot) had larger root fresh weight and dry weight, whereas the air pot had lower root mass in this investigation. In the current study, the root dry matter content percentage and shoot-root ratio are highest in conventional pots and medium in plants produced in air pots (Fig 1). Amoroso et al., (2010) found similar results across trees cultivated in traditional smooth-walled containers and small leaf linden trees grown in air-pruning containers for a single season. In a similar vein, Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) found that various apple cultivars cultivated in air-pruning containers had more shoot biomass and smaller roots than field-grown plants. When plants are eventually transplanted into landscape settings, the decrease in root biomass could be advantageous if it is followed by a decrease in frequent root abnormalities such kinked, circular, or girdling roots. The current study’s findings align with those of Fitzpatrick et al., (1994) study on mahogany, which found that plants cultivated in normal black plastic containers had larger root masses than those produced in air root pruning containers. Larger carbohydrate reserves are associated with higher total biomass (Close et al., 2010), which implies that air-pruned seedlings would grow more than non-pruned seedlings (Tsakaldimi et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2011).

Fig 1: Root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in black plastic pot and airpot.


       
RhizoVision Explorer (version 2.0.3) software was used to record the root parameters of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf), which revealed a substantial difference between the treatments. The black plastic pot (T2) had the highest parameters for root length (cm), root spread (cm) and branching frequency (mm-1), whereas T4 (Growbag) had the highest parameters for total root length (cm), number of root tips (Nos.), number of branch points and root perimeter (cm2) (Fig 2). Higher root diameter and finer root values were reported in the air pot which is in line with the findings Elsysy et al. (2022) of The root circle was extensive, with roots concentrated on the outside wall, even if the root features were on the higher side for the standard pots such plastic pots and growbags in the current study. In contrast, the plants grown in air pots had medium root length and root spread, which prevented the roots from coiling (Fig 3). According to Gilman (2009), Grossnickle and El-Kassaby (2015) and South and Mitchell (2006), these conventional containers may promote root circling and the development of pot-bound roots, which can negatively impact tree establishment and growth after long-term field transplantation. The importance of having a well-defined root system is frequently emphasized (Ruehle and Kormanik, 1986; Davis and Jacobs, 2005; Wilson and Jacobs, 2006). Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) found that several apple cultivars grown in air-pruning containers had smaller roots and higher shoot biomass than field-grown liners.

Fig 2: Root phenotyping of black plastic pot grown Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in RhizoVision Explorer software.



Fig 3: Root phenotyping of airpot grown Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in RhizoVision Explorer software.


       
The results revealed reasonable values for root parameters when compared to growbags and plastic pots, despite the fact that airpots (T3) are intended to encourage air pruning and avoid root circling. Instead of prolonged root elongation, more root tip pruning may result in the production of many lateral roots, which could affect measures of total root length. In comparison to containers with a higher rooting volume, air pruning containers may decrease total root extension while stimulating fibrous root systems (Dumroese et al., 2011).
       
According to earlier research, air root pruning containers reduce root circling (Marshall and Gilman, 1998) and have fewer packed, spiraling and L-shaped roots (Ortega et al., 2006) this is in accordance with the minimal value for the root characteristics in airpot grown plants in the current study.
       
In contrast to the findings of Pokhrel and Albrecht (2024), who reported that air pruning produced more thicker roots than the other containers, the root diameter in the current study was higher in brown and black plastic pots and smaller in air pots. According to Desrochers et al., (2002); Makita et al., (2009) and Pregitzer et al., (2002), the total length of the root was maximum in traditional containers, whereas the total length of the root ≤0.4 mm (finer roots) was maximum in air pots, which typically have a faster respiration rate than coarser roots. More fine-rooted plants are probably better able to adjust to shifting soil conditions, which increases the chances of successful establishment upon transplant. Additionally, some researchers have discovered that fine roots are linked to root adaptations for survival in shifting settings and are involved in the manufacturing of specific growth hormones (Di Iorio et al., 2016; Makita et al., 2016; Mosca et al., 2017). A wider root spread in these containers may be associated with better lateral root expansion due to a larger internal space and reduced root confinement. An essential measure of root exploration ability and nutrient uptake efficiency is root spread (Gregory, 2006).
       
Using customized containers with walls made to direct roots toward an air hole is known as air pruning. Root tips will become dehydrated when coming into touch with air, which will lead to pruning. Air pruning encourages the development of a dense fibrous root system within the substrate by stimulating lateral root growth and root branching (Elsysy and Einhorn, 2022; Feng et al., 2018).
       
All of the study’s findings suggest that using air-root pruning containers in the nursery may benefit roots, perhaps through improved physiological and ecological processes such as better nutrient and water uptake. The better root architecture of air pot container produced better shoot parameters in Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) compared to conventional containers. This air pot also excluded the root coiling and regular root pruning in the container grown nursery plants.

CONCULUSION

In conclusion, the study revealed that container type significantly influenced the growth and root architecture of Tabernaemontana divaricata (Dwarf). Among the treatments, plants grown in airpot (T3) showed superior shoot growth and overall plant performance. Conventional containers such as black plastic pot (T2) and growbag (T4) produced higher root mass but also showed root circling. In contrast, airpot containers promoted better root pruning and balanced plant growth. Therefore, airpot containers can be recommended for producing quality nursery plants of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply grateful to SRM College of Agricultural Sciences for providing the necessary facilities and academic environment to successfully carry out this research work.
 
Compliance with ethical standards
 
Ethical issues
 
None.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Amoroso, G., Frangi, P., Piatti, R., Ferrini, F., Fini, A. and Faoro, M. (2010). Effect of container design on plant growth and root deformation of littleleaf linden and field elm. HortScience. 45: 1824-1829.

  2. Annapurna, D., Rathore, T.S. and Joshi, G. (2004). Effect of container type and size on the growth and quality of seedlings of Acacia nilotica. Indian Journal of Forestry. 27(3): 265- 268.

  3. Bouma, T.J., Nielsen, K.L. and Koutstaal, B. (2001). Root system architecture and nutrient acquisition strategies. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 16(7): 360-366.

  4. Bühler, O., Kristoffersen, P. and Larsen, S.U. (2012). Growth of street trees in different container systems and its effect on plant establishment. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. 11(2): 121-127.

  5. Chirino, E., Vilagrosa, A., Hernández, E.I., Matos, A. and Vallejo, V.R. (2008). Effects of a deep container on root development and field establishment of Quercus suber seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 256(4): 779-785.

  6. Close, D.C., Beadle, C.L. and Brown, P.H. (2010). The physiological basis of biomass accumulation and carbohydrate reserve formation in tree seedlings. Tree Physiology. 30(8): 1029- 1041.

  7. Davis, A.S. and Jacobs, D.F. (2005). Quantifying root system quality of nursery seedlings and relationship to outplanting performance. New Forests. 30(2-3): 295-311.

  8. Desrochers, A., Landhäusser, S.M. and Lieffers, V.J. (2002). Coarse and fine root respiration in aspen (Populus tremuloides). Tree Physiology. 22(10): 725-732.

  9. Di Iorio, A., Giacomuzzi, V. and Chiatante, D. (2016). Acclimation of fine root respiration to soil warming involves starch deposition in very fine and fine roots: A case study in Fagus sylvatica saplings. Physiologia Plantarum. 156: 294-310.

  10. Dumroese, R.K., Heiskanen, J., Englund, K. and Tervahauta, A. (2011). Container nursery production of tree seedlings: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 26(Suppl. 11): 17-27.

  11. Dumroese, R.K., Pinto, J.R. and Jacobs, D.F. (2016). Container nursery production. Tree Planters’ Notes. 59(2): 30-40.

  12. Elsysy, M. and Einhorn, T.C. (2022). Air-pruning containers modify root and scion growth and alter resource allocation of bench-grafted apple plants. Horticulturae. 8(9): 797.

  13. Feng, G., Chen, Y., Li, Q., Wang, J. and Zhang, Y. (2018). Effects of air-pruning containers on root architecture and growth of container-grown plants. Scientia Horticulturae. 233. 17-23.

  14. Fitzpatrick, G.E., Bilderback, T.E. and Fonteno, W.C. (1994). Root growth patterns of woody plants in conventional and air-root-pruning containers. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 12(4): 220-223.

  15. Gilman, E.F. (2009). Root pruning and root circling in container- grown plants. Hort Technology. 19(1): 61-66.

  16. Gilman, E.F., Harchick, C. and Paz, M. (2010). Effect of container type on root form and growth of trees. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 28(1): 1-7.

  17. Gregory, P.J. (2006). Roots, Rhizosphere and Soil: The Route to a Better Understanding of Soil Science. Oxford University Press.

  18. Grossnickle, S.C. and El-Kassaby, Y.A. (2015). Bareroot versus container stocktypes: A performance comparison. New Forests. 47(1): 1-51.

  19. Heiskanen, J. and Rikala, R. (1998). Root growth and morphology of Norway spruce seedlings in different container types. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 13(1-4): 436- 442.

  20. Kalsi, S., Dhakad, A.K. and Singh, S. (2025). Assessment of root- shoot growth of tree seedlings raised in conventional container type and air-prune pots. Indian Journal of Ecology. 52(3): 493-500.

  21. Leiva, M.J. and Fernández-Alés, R. (1998). Variability in seedling growth and drought tolerance of Quercus ilex and Quercus suber seedlings. Tree Physiology. 18(7): 447- 455.

  22. Makita, N., Hirano, Y., Dannoura, M., Kominami, Y., Mizoguchi, T., Ishii, H., Kanazawa, Y. and Shibata, H. (2009). Fine root morphological traits determine variation in root respiration of woody species. Tree Physiology. 29(4): 579-588.

  23. Makita, N., Pumpanen, J., Köster, K. and Berninger, F. (2016). Changes in very fine root respiration and morphology with time since last fire in a boreal forest. Plant and Soil. 402: 303-316.

  24. Mariotti, B., Maltoni, A., Jacobs, D.F. and Tani, A. (2015). Container effects on growth and root system architecture of Quercus robur and Juglans regia seedlings. Forest Systems. 24(2): e012.

  25. Marshall, M.D. and Gilman, E.F. (1998). Effects of nursery container type on root growth and landscape establishment of Acer rubrum. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 16: 55-59.

  26. Mosca, E., Montecchio, L., Barion, G., Dal Cortivo, C. and Vamerali, T. (2017). Combined effects of thinning and decline on fine root dynamics in a Quercus robur L. forest adjoining the Italian Pre-Alps. Annals of Botany. 119: 1235-1246.

  27. Ortega, U., Majada, J., Mena-Petite, A., Sánchez-Zabala, J., Rodríguez-Iturrizar, N., Txarterina, K., Azpitarte, J. and Duñabeitia, M. (2006). Field performance of Pinus radiata seedlings produced in different container types. New Forests. 31(1): 97-112.

  28. Pinto, J.R., Marshall, J.D., Dumroese, R.K., Davis, A.S. and Cobos, D.R. (2011). Establishing native plants in the nursery: Effects of container size and type on seedling growth and physiology. Native Plants Journal. 12(1): 13-24.

  29. Poorter, H., Fiorani, F., Stitt, M., Schurr, U., Finck, A., Gibon, Y. and Pons, T.L. (2012). The art of growing plants for experimental purposes: A practical guide for the plant biologist. Functional Plant Biology. 39(11): 821-838.

  30. Pokhrel, A. and Albrecht, U. (2024). Evaluation of different container types on root structure and performance of nursery- grown citrus plants. Hort Science. 59(8): 1056-1064.

  31. Pregitzer, K.S., Laskowski, M.J., Burton, A.J., Lessard, V.C. and Zak, D.R. (2002). Variation in sugar maple root respiration with root diameter and soil depth. Tree Physiology. 22(8): 665-670.

  32. Ruehle, J.L. and Kormanik, P.P. (1986). Lateral root morphology: A potential indicator of seedling quality in northern red oak. Forest Science. 32(2): 293-300.

  33. Seethepalli, A., Dhakal, K., Griffiths, M., Guo, H., Freschet, G.T. and York, L.M. (2021). RhizoVision Explorer: Open-source software for root image analysis and measurement standardization. AoB Plants. 13(6): plab056.

  34. Simshaw, D., Gillman, E.F. and Harchick, C. (2015). Effect of container type on growth and root development of container-grown plants. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 33(2): 80-85.

  35. Singh, S., Sharma, R., Dhakad, A.K. and Dhatt, K.K. (2024). Using air-pots to improve shoot and root quality of saplings of five shrub species used in landscape restoration. Arboricultural Journal. 46(12): 1-14.

  36. South, D.B.  and Mitchell, R.J. (2006). A root-collar diameter prediction model for container-grown seedlings. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 30(4): 173-180.

  37. Tsakaldimi, M., Ganatsas, P. and Jacobs, D.F. (2013). Root pruning effects on seedling morphology, growth and survival of forest tree species. New Forests. 44: 687-701.

  38. Tsakaldimi, M., Zagas, T., Tsitsoni, T. and Ganatsas, P. (2005). Root morphology, stem growth and field performance of Pinus halepensis seedlings produced in different container types. Forest Ecology and Management. 217(2-3): 145-154.

  39. Villar-Salvador, P., Planelles, R., Enríquez, E. and Peñuelas-Rubira, J.L. (2004). Nursery cultivation regimes, plant functional attributes and field performance relationships in the Mediterranean oak Quercus ilex. Forest Ecology and Management. 196(2-3): 257-266.

  40. Wilson, E.R. and Jacobs, D.F. (2006). Quality assessment of temperate zone deciduous hardwood seedlings. New Forests. 31(3): 417-433.

  41. Yang, Y., He, C., Huang, L. and Ban, Y. (2011). Effects of root pruning on root growth, carbohydrate reserves and seedling quality in container-grown forest seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 262(7): 1340-1347.
Published In
Indian Journal of Agricultural Research
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
39
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Full Research Article

    Comparative Study of Airpot and Conventional Containers- root Phenotyping with RhizoVision Explorer Software

    T
    T.S.K. Ekashwaran1
    S
    S. Anandhi1,*
    S
    S. Shakila1
    R
    R. Nagajothi2
    K
    K. Anbukkarasi3
    1Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
    2Section of Biochemistry and Crop Physiology, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
    3Department of Nature Resource Management, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Container design plays a vital role in nursery production as it influences overall plant quality and field establishment. Conventional containers often induce root circling and deformation, while air root pruning containers increase the number of descending roots. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare root pruning container and traditional container production systems on the growth and root architecture of Tabernaemontana divaricata (Dwarf).

    Methods: The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with six treatments and three replications. Six 10-inch height containers were tested in this experiment: Brown plastic pot, black plastic pot, airpot, growbag, black polybag and white polybag. Two-month-old plants were grown in a medium of red soil, vermicompost and cocopeat enriched with biofertilizers. Growth, biomass and root parameters were recorded at 120 days after planting and root architecture was analyzed using RhizoVision Explorer software.

    Result: Airpot (T3) recorded superior shoot growth with maximum plant height (28.95 cm), stem diameter (10.54 mm), inflorescence per plant (6.66), number of branches/plant (58.00), number of leaves/branch (16.30), leaf area (2.49 cm2), chlorophyll content (52.13), shoot fresh weight (49.4 3 g), shoot dry weight (11.15 g) and shoot dry matter content (22.55 %). Root phenotyping revealed greater root spread, total root length, root tips and branching points in growbag, while the black plastic pot recorded higher root volume and root biomass. Airpot containers minimized root circling and produced better quality nursery plants of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

    INTRODUCTION

    In contemporary horticulture, size, shape and material of the container have a major impact on the growth and development of plants in containerized plant production systems. Plant biomass output, physiological function and nutrient uptake efficiency are ultimately influenced by these parameters, which also have an impact on root development and the root-zone environment. Although they are frequently used in plant production, traditional nursery containers like plastic pots and polybags frequently produce unfavorable circumstances for root development resulting in root distortion, circling and poor plant establishment following transplanting (Pokhrel and Albrecht, 2024).
           
    Modified container technologies, such air-pruning containers, have been created to improve root architecture in order to overcome these problems. The root tips of these containers are exposed to air through holes or perforations in their walls, which naturally prunes the root apex. A dense and fibrous root system is the outcome of this process, which disrupts apical dominance and encourages the growth of many lateral roots (Elsysy and Einhorn, 2022). Additionally, air-pruning containers promote even root distribution and avoid root-bound problems that are frequently seen in traditional containers (Singh et al., 2024). A demonstrable growth advantage after transplanting perennial plants produced in air-pruning containers was purportedly due to a combination of greater absorptive capacity and limited transplant disturbance of their root systems compared to plants produced by alternative production methods.
           
    Tabernaemontana divaricata     (L.) R. Br. ex. Roem. and Schult., also known as Crape Jasmine or pin wheel jasmine or milk flower, is a perennial evergreen shrub native to India and is extensively cultivated throughout South-East Asia and warm regions of continental Asia. Because of its eye-catching blossoms and bushy look, the dwarf variety is often favored for hedges and displays.
           
    The ornamental plants’ aesthetic value is enhanced by the containers, which are essential to plant and root growth. With a focus on the effectiveness of air-pruning containers in comparison to traditional nursery containers, the current study was carried out to compare the influence of conventional containers and the air pruning containers on the growth and root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    An experiment to study the effect of different plant growing containers on shoot growth and root architecture was conducted during the year 2025-26 at SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, Chengalpattu. The location is situated between the latitudes of 12°23′19.7″N and the longitudes of 79°44′37.4″E, with an average altitude of 50 m and a relative humidity of 50 to 70 per cent. The average temperature in the area ranged from 23°C to 38°C during the study period. The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with six treatments and three replications. The treatment comprises of different containers of 10-inch size: T1- Brown pot, T2- Black pot, T3- Airpot, T4- Growbag, T5- Black polybag, T6- White polybag. Uniform, healthy, disease-free, 2-month-old Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf plants were planted in different containers filled with red soil: Vermicompost: Cocopeat (2:1:1). The growing media in each container were enriched with 20 grams each of Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens  and Azospirillum. The shoot and root characteristics were recorded on the 120th day of planting. Root morphological parameters were also analyzed using RhizoVision Explorer (version 2.0.3) software (Seethepalli et al., 2021) after 120 days of planting. The data collected were subjected to ANOVA as per the design using statistical software (OPSTAT/R). Significant differences among treatments were assessed using the F-test and means were compared using CD at 5% level.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Effect of containers on shoot characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf
     
    In the present study, shoot parameters of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf recorded on 120 days of planting were significantly influenced by the type of containers used for cultivation (Table 1).

    Table 1: Effect of containers on shoot characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf (120 DAS).


           
    The highest plant height (28.95 cm) was recorded in T3 (Airpot), which was statistically on par with T4 (Growbag) (28.83 cm). The lowest plant height (24.33 cm) was observed in T5 (Black polybag). Stem diameter at 120 DAP ranged from 8.83 mm to 10.54 mm across the treatments, which was statistically non significant. The maximum stem diameter was observed in T3 (Air pot) (10.54 mm), followed by T4 (Growbag) (10.38 mm) and T1 (Brown plastic pot) (10.33 mm). Among all treatments, plants grown in the T3 (Airpot) consistently performed better, producing the highest number of branches (58.00), along with more number of leaves per branch (16.30) and greater leaf area (2.49 cm2). On the other hand, comparatively lesser branches (33.00) were recorded in treatments such as T5 (Black polybag), while no. of leaf/branch (12.33) and leaf area (1.49 cm2) were lesser in T6 (White polybag). A significant variation was observed in the number of inflorescence produced per plant. The highest number of inflorescence was recorded in T3 (Airpot) (6.66), which was significantly higher than other treatments and statistically superior to T5 (Black polybag) (3.33) and T6 (White polybag) (3.11). The highest chlorophyll content was recorded in T3 (Airpot) with 52.13 SPAD units, followed by T4 (Growbag) (48.53) and T2 (Black plastic pot) (48.16). In contrast, the lowest chlorophyll content was observed in T6 (White polybag) (27.83), followed by T1 (Brown plastic pot) (30.63). The treatment T3 (Airpot) recorded maximum shoot fresh weight (49.43 g) and dry weight (11.15 g), while T5 (Black polybag) recorded minimum shoot fresh (17.49 g) and dry weight  (4.08 g). The shoot dry matter content ranged from 22.55% to 37.09%, with the highest and lowest value recorded in T1 (Brown plastic pot) and T3 (Airpot) respectively.
     
    Effect of containers on root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata dwarf
     
    The root growth characteristics of Tabernaemontana plants were significantly influenced by the type of container used for cultivation (Table 2). The highest root volume was recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot) (120.00 cm3), followed by T1 (Brown plastic pot) (87.00 cm3) and the lowest (19.00 cm3) recorded in T6 (Whitepoly bag). The treatment T2 (Black plastic pot) recorded maximum root fresh weight (81.22 g) and dry weight (30.22 g), while T6 (White polybag) recorded minimum root fresh (13.90 g) and dry weight (2.90 g). The root dry matter content ranged from 16.50% to 37.20%, with the highest value recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot). The highest root:shoot ratio was observed in T2 (Black plastic pot) (2.85), while the lowest root:shoot ratio was observed in T6 (White polybag) (0.45).

    Table 2: Effect of containers on root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf (120 DAS).


     
    Root phenotyping using the rhizoVision explorer software
     
    Among the root parameters analyzed using software (Table 3), the maximum values for root spread (26.8 cm), total root length (19763.20 cm), number of root tips (10069), number of branch points (12063.00) and root perimeter (10552.30 cm2) were recorded in T4 (Growbag) while, the maximum values for root length (65.40 cm) and branching frequency (0.13 mm-1) was recorded in T2 (Black plastic pot). The lowest values for root length (28.00 cm), root spread (15.30 cm), root diameter (0.90 mm), total root length (4578.34 cm), branching frequency (0.053 mm-1), number of root tips (3062.00), number of branch points (2257.00) and root perimeter (3275.04 cm2), total root length ≤0.4 mm (4061.75 mm) were recorded in T6 (White polybag). The treatment T3 (Airpot) recorded a root length (43.60 cm), root spread (21.40 cm), root diameter (1.73 mm), total root length (14566.01 cm), branching frequency (0.099 mm-1), number of root tips (6345.00), number of branch points (6362.00) and root perimeter (6147.60 cm2), total root length ≤0.4 mm (10568.65 mm).

    Table 3: Root phenotyping of Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf using the RhizoVision Explorer software (120 DAP).


           
    The success of plant growth in the nursery and cultivation is greatly influenced by the design of the container. The purpose of this study is to investigate different containers, their distinctive qualities and how they affect Tabernaemontana divaricata Dwarf root properties and plant growth and development. Additionally, this study highlights the significance of container type and design in influencing root development and plant performance as it is the first report on root architectural attributes influenced by various container types. Containers affect root system development and architecture (Heiskanen and Rikala, 1998; Chirino et al., 2008) growth and biomass allocation (Tsakaldimi et al., 2005; Gilman et al., 2010; Dumroese et al., 2011).
     
    Impact of containers on shoot characteristics
     
    The airpot container (T3) outperformed the other treatments in the following shoot parameters: plant height (28.95 cm), stem diameter (10.54 mm), inflorescence per plant (6.66), root: Shoot ratio (0.55), number of branches/plant(58.00), number of leaves/branch (16.30), leaf area (2.49 cm2), chlorophyll content (52.13), shoot fresh weight (49.43 g), shoot dry weight (11.15 g) and shoot dry mater content (22.55%). This is in line with the findings of Pinto et al., (2011) and Bühler et al. (2012), that container parameters affect sapling growth and development and, consequently, the quality of saplings produced.  The increased ability of tiny roots to absorb available water and nutrients may be the cause of the overall improvement in the shoot properties of plants cultivated in air pots. This result is consistent with Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) and Bouma et al., (2001).
           
    The improved shoot features in this study were concordant with those reported by Mariotti et al., (2015), who reported that container configuration significantly affected the growth and development of seedlings of Quercus robur and Juglans regia. According to several research (Annapurna et al., 2004; Poorter et al., 2012), the size and form of the container affect plant biomass and its distribution; hence, the saplings generated in this manner have an effect on the field establishment upon transplanting (Chirino et al., 2008). According to Wilson and Jacobs (2006), this study emphasizes some characteristics of saplings that should be taken into account because they are likely to impact the performance when planting out.
           
    The superior growth performance of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) grown in air-pot containers in the current study demonstrated that greater nutrient uptake and root-zone aeration in air-pot containers may be responsible for improved shoot growth. Airpots’ perforated structure improves root respiration and nutrient absorption by preventing water logging in the growing medium and facilitating improved oxygen diffusion. Singh et al., (2024) found similar results, showing that Buxus sempervirens, Lawsonia inermis, Murraya paniculata, Schefflera arboricola and Tecoma stans plants grown in airpots had far greater shoot biomass, collar diameter and plant height than those planted in polybags.
           
    The results of this study are in line with those of Simshaw et al., (2015), who found that the dry weights of Amelanchier × grandiflora ‘Cole’s Select’ and Rhus aromatica ‘Gro Low’, shoots in the airpots (T3) were around 66% higher than those in the Smart Pot (298 g). The findings of Tsakaldimi et al., (2005), Gilman et al., (2010) and Dumroese et al., (2011) that containers affect plant development and biomass allocation comply with the greater biomass found in this study. Given its correlation with field performance in semi-arid settings (Leiva and Fernandez-Ales, 1998; Villar-Salvador et al., 2004), the shoot/root ratio is a crucial characteristic for hardwood seedling quality evaluation (Wilson and Jacobs, 2006). Because of its greatest root length and fresh weight, the T2 (Black plastic pot) in the current study had the highest shoot-root ratio. Similar report was given by Kalsi et al., (2025).

    Impact of containers on root characteristics
     
    The total root volume for air-pruning containers was significantly greater among the manually measured root parameters in this investigation, which is corresponding to the results of Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) in apple cultivars Gala and Honey crisp at the end of the season. In the same way, the treatment T2 (Black plastic pot) had larger root fresh weight and dry weight, whereas the air pot had lower root mass in this investigation. In the current study, the root dry matter content percentage and shoot-root ratio are highest in conventional pots and medium in plants produced in air pots (Fig 1). Amoroso et al., (2010) found similar results across trees cultivated in traditional smooth-walled containers and small leaf linden trees grown in air-pruning containers for a single season. In a similar vein, Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) found that various apple cultivars cultivated in air-pruning containers had more shoot biomass and smaller roots than field-grown plants. When plants are eventually transplanted into landscape settings, the decrease in root biomass could be advantageous if it is followed by a decrease in frequent root abnormalities such kinked, circular, or girdling roots. The current study’s findings align with those of Fitzpatrick et al., (1994) study on mahogany, which found that plants cultivated in normal black plastic containers had larger root masses than those produced in air root pruning containers. Larger carbohydrate reserves are associated with higher total biomass (Close et al., 2010), which implies that air-pruned seedlings would grow more than non-pruned seedlings (Tsakaldimi et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2011).

    Fig 1: Root characteristics of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in black plastic pot and airpot.


           
    RhizoVision Explorer (version 2.0.3) software was used to record the root parameters of Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf), which revealed a substantial difference between the treatments. The black plastic pot (T2) had the highest parameters for root length (cm), root spread (cm) and branching frequency (mm-1), whereas T4 (Growbag) had the highest parameters for total root length (cm), number of root tips (Nos.), number of branch points and root perimeter (cm2) (Fig 2). Higher root diameter and finer root values were reported in the air pot which is in line with the findings Elsysy et al. (2022) of The root circle was extensive, with roots concentrated on the outside wall, even if the root features were on the higher side for the standard pots such plastic pots and growbags in the current study. In contrast, the plants grown in air pots had medium root length and root spread, which prevented the roots from coiling (Fig 3). According to Gilman (2009), Grossnickle and El-Kassaby (2015) and South and Mitchell (2006), these conventional containers may promote root circling and the development of pot-bound roots, which can negatively impact tree establishment and growth after long-term field transplantation. The importance of having a well-defined root system is frequently emphasized (Ruehle and Kormanik, 1986; Davis and Jacobs, 2005; Wilson and Jacobs, 2006). Elsysy and Einhorn (2022) found that several apple cultivars grown in air-pruning containers had smaller roots and higher shoot biomass than field-grown liners.

    Fig 2: Root phenotyping of black plastic pot grown Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in RhizoVision Explorer software.



    Fig 3: Root phenotyping of airpot grown Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) in RhizoVision Explorer software.


           
    The results revealed reasonable values for root parameters when compared to growbags and plastic pots, despite the fact that airpots (T3) are intended to encourage air pruning and avoid root circling. Instead of prolonged root elongation, more root tip pruning may result in the production of many lateral roots, which could affect measures of total root length. In comparison to containers with a higher rooting volume, air pruning containers may decrease total root extension while stimulating fibrous root systems (Dumroese et al., 2011).
           
    According to earlier research, air root pruning containers reduce root circling (Marshall and Gilman, 1998) and have fewer packed, spiraling and L-shaped roots (Ortega et al., 2006) this is in accordance with the minimal value for the root characteristics in airpot grown plants in the current study.
           
    In contrast to the findings of Pokhrel and Albrecht (2024), who reported that air pruning produced more thicker roots than the other containers, the root diameter in the current study was higher in brown and black plastic pots and smaller in air pots. According to Desrochers et al., (2002); Makita et al., (2009) and Pregitzer et al., (2002), the total length of the root was maximum in traditional containers, whereas the total length of the root ≤0.4 mm (finer roots) was maximum in air pots, which typically have a faster respiration rate than coarser roots. More fine-rooted plants are probably better able to adjust to shifting soil conditions, which increases the chances of successful establishment upon transplant. Additionally, some researchers have discovered that fine roots are linked to root adaptations for survival in shifting settings and are involved in the manufacturing of specific growth hormones (Di Iorio et al., 2016; Makita et al., 2016; Mosca et al., 2017). A wider root spread in these containers may be associated with better lateral root expansion due to a larger internal space and reduced root confinement. An essential measure of root exploration ability and nutrient uptake efficiency is root spread (Gregory, 2006).
           
    Using customized containers with walls made to direct roots toward an air hole is known as air pruning. Root tips will become dehydrated when coming into touch with air, which will lead to pruning. Air pruning encourages the development of a dense fibrous root system within the substrate by stimulating lateral root growth and root branching (Elsysy and Einhorn, 2022; Feng et al., 2018).
           
    All of the study’s findings suggest that using air-root pruning containers in the nursery may benefit roots, perhaps through improved physiological and ecological processes such as better nutrient and water uptake. The better root architecture of air pot container produced better shoot parameters in Tabernaemontana divaricata (dwarf) compared to conventional containers. This air pot also excluded the root coiling and regular root pruning in the container grown nursery plants.

    CONCULUSION

    In conclusion, the study revealed that container type significantly influenced the growth and root architecture of Tabernaemontana divaricata (Dwarf). Among the treatments, plants grown in airpot (T3) showed superior shoot growth and overall plant performance. Conventional containers such as black plastic pot (T2) and growbag (T4) produced higher root mass but also showed root circling. In contrast, airpot containers promoted better root pruning and balanced plant growth. Therefore, airpot containers can be recommended for producing quality nursery plants of Tabernaemontana divaricata.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    I am deeply grateful to SRM College of Agricultural Sciences for providing the necessary facilities and academic environment to successfully carry out this research work.
     
    Compliance with ethical standards
     
    Ethical issues
     
    None.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.

    REFERENCES


    1. Amoroso, G., Frangi, P., Piatti, R., Ferrini, F., Fini, A. and Faoro, M. (2010). Effect of container design on plant growth and root deformation of littleleaf linden and field elm. HortScience. 45: 1824-1829.

    2. Annapurna, D., Rathore, T.S. and Joshi, G. (2004). Effect of container type and size on the growth and quality of seedlings of Acacia nilotica. Indian Journal of Forestry. 27(3): 265- 268.

    3. Bouma, T.J., Nielsen, K.L. and Koutstaal, B. (2001). Root system architecture and nutrient acquisition strategies. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 16(7): 360-366.

    4. Bühler, O., Kristoffersen, P. and Larsen, S.U. (2012). Growth of street trees in different container systems and its effect on plant establishment. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. 11(2): 121-127.

    5. Chirino, E., Vilagrosa, A., Hernández, E.I., Matos, A. and Vallejo, V.R. (2008). Effects of a deep container on root development and field establishment of Quercus suber seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 256(4): 779-785.

    6. Close, D.C., Beadle, C.L. and Brown, P.H. (2010). The physiological basis of biomass accumulation and carbohydrate reserve formation in tree seedlings. Tree Physiology. 30(8): 1029- 1041.

    7. Davis, A.S. and Jacobs, D.F. (2005). Quantifying root system quality of nursery seedlings and relationship to outplanting performance. New Forests. 30(2-3): 295-311.

    8. Desrochers, A., Landhäusser, S.M. and Lieffers, V.J. (2002). Coarse and fine root respiration in aspen (Populus tremuloides). Tree Physiology. 22(10): 725-732.

    9. Di Iorio, A., Giacomuzzi, V. and Chiatante, D. (2016). Acclimation of fine root respiration to soil warming involves starch deposition in very fine and fine roots: A case study in Fagus sylvatica saplings. Physiologia Plantarum. 156: 294-310.

    10. Dumroese, R.K., Heiskanen, J., Englund, K. and Tervahauta, A. (2011). Container nursery production of tree seedlings: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 26(Suppl. 11): 17-27.

    11. Dumroese, R.K., Pinto, J.R. and Jacobs, D.F. (2016). Container nursery production. Tree Planters’ Notes. 59(2): 30-40.

    12. Elsysy, M. and Einhorn, T.C. (2022). Air-pruning containers modify root and scion growth and alter resource allocation of bench-grafted apple plants. Horticulturae. 8(9): 797.

    13. Feng, G., Chen, Y., Li, Q., Wang, J. and Zhang, Y. (2018). Effects of air-pruning containers on root architecture and growth of container-grown plants. Scientia Horticulturae. 233. 17-23.

    14. Fitzpatrick, G.E., Bilderback, T.E. and Fonteno, W.C. (1994). Root growth patterns of woody plants in conventional and air-root-pruning containers. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 12(4): 220-223.

    15. Gilman, E.F. (2009). Root pruning and root circling in container- grown plants. Hort Technology. 19(1): 61-66.

    16. Gilman, E.F., Harchick, C. and Paz, M. (2010). Effect of container type on root form and growth of trees. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 28(1): 1-7.

    17. Gregory, P.J. (2006). Roots, Rhizosphere and Soil: The Route to a Better Understanding of Soil Science. Oxford University Press.

    18. Grossnickle, S.C. and El-Kassaby, Y.A. (2015). Bareroot versus container stocktypes: A performance comparison. New Forests. 47(1): 1-51.

    19. Heiskanen, J. and Rikala, R. (1998). Root growth and morphology of Norway spruce seedlings in different container types. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 13(1-4): 436- 442.

    20. Kalsi, S., Dhakad, A.K. and Singh, S. (2025). Assessment of root- shoot growth of tree seedlings raised in conventional container type and air-prune pots. Indian Journal of Ecology. 52(3): 493-500.

    21. Leiva, M.J. and Fernández-Alés, R. (1998). Variability in seedling growth and drought tolerance of Quercus ilex and Quercus suber seedlings. Tree Physiology. 18(7): 447- 455.

    22. Makita, N., Hirano, Y., Dannoura, M., Kominami, Y., Mizoguchi, T., Ishii, H., Kanazawa, Y. and Shibata, H. (2009). Fine root morphological traits determine variation in root respiration of woody species. Tree Physiology. 29(4): 579-588.

    23. Makita, N., Pumpanen, J., Köster, K. and Berninger, F. (2016). Changes in very fine root respiration and morphology with time since last fire in a boreal forest. Plant and Soil. 402: 303-316.

    24. Mariotti, B., Maltoni, A., Jacobs, D.F. and Tani, A. (2015). Container effects on growth and root system architecture of Quercus robur and Juglans regia seedlings. Forest Systems. 24(2): e012.

    25. Marshall, M.D. and Gilman, E.F. (1998). Effects of nursery container type on root growth and landscape establishment of Acer rubrum. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 16: 55-59.

    26. Mosca, E., Montecchio, L., Barion, G., Dal Cortivo, C. and Vamerali, T. (2017). Combined effects of thinning and decline on fine root dynamics in a Quercus robur L. forest adjoining the Italian Pre-Alps. Annals of Botany. 119: 1235-1246.

    27. Ortega, U., Majada, J., Mena-Petite, A., Sánchez-Zabala, J., Rodríguez-Iturrizar, N., Txarterina, K., Azpitarte, J. and Duñabeitia, M. (2006). Field performance of Pinus radiata seedlings produced in different container types. New Forests. 31(1): 97-112.

    28. Pinto, J.R., Marshall, J.D., Dumroese, R.K., Davis, A.S. and Cobos, D.R. (2011). Establishing native plants in the nursery: Effects of container size and type on seedling growth and physiology. Native Plants Journal. 12(1): 13-24.

    29. Poorter, H., Fiorani, F., Stitt, M., Schurr, U., Finck, A., Gibon, Y. and Pons, T.L. (2012). The art of growing plants for experimental purposes: A practical guide for the plant biologist. Functional Plant Biology. 39(11): 821-838.

    30. Pokhrel, A. and Albrecht, U. (2024). Evaluation of different container types on root structure and performance of nursery- grown citrus plants. Hort Science. 59(8): 1056-1064.

    31. Pregitzer, K.S., Laskowski, M.J., Burton, A.J., Lessard, V.C. and Zak, D.R. (2002). Variation in sugar maple root respiration with root diameter and soil depth. Tree Physiology. 22(8): 665-670.

    32. Ruehle, J.L. and Kormanik, P.P. (1986). Lateral root morphology: A potential indicator of seedling quality in northern red oak. Forest Science. 32(2): 293-300.

    33. Seethepalli, A., Dhakal, K., Griffiths, M., Guo, H., Freschet, G.T. and York, L.M. (2021). RhizoVision Explorer: Open-source software for root image analysis and measurement standardization. AoB Plants. 13(6): plab056.

    34. Simshaw, D., Gillman, E.F. and Harchick, C. (2015). Effect of container type on growth and root development of container-grown plants. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 33(2): 80-85.

    35. Singh, S., Sharma, R., Dhakad, A.K. and Dhatt, K.K. (2024). Using air-pots to improve shoot and root quality of saplings of five shrub species used in landscape restoration. Arboricultural Journal. 46(12): 1-14.

    36. South, D.B.  and Mitchell, R.J. (2006). A root-collar diameter prediction model for container-grown seedlings. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 30(4): 173-180.

    37. Tsakaldimi, M., Ganatsas, P. and Jacobs, D.F. (2013). Root pruning effects on seedling morphology, growth and survival of forest tree species. New Forests. 44: 687-701.

    38. Tsakaldimi, M., Zagas, T., Tsitsoni, T. and Ganatsas, P. (2005). Root morphology, stem growth and field performance of Pinus halepensis seedlings produced in different container types. Forest Ecology and Management. 217(2-3): 145-154.

    39. Villar-Salvador, P., Planelles, R., Enríquez, E. and Peñuelas-Rubira, J.L. (2004). Nursery cultivation regimes, plant functional attributes and field performance relationships in the Mediterranean oak Quercus ilex. Forest Ecology and Management. 196(2-3): 257-266.

    40. Wilson, E.R. and Jacobs, D.F. (2006). Quality assessment of temperate zone deciduous hardwood seedlings. New Forests. 31(3): 417-433.

    41. Yang, Y., He, C., Huang, L. and Ban, Y. (2011). Effects of root pruning on root growth, carbohydrate reserves and seedling quality in container-grown forest seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 262(7): 1340-1347.
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Indian Journal of Agricultural Research

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)