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Comparative Analysis of Growth Parameters of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) under Organic and Conventional Farming Systems

S
S.B. Bhosale1,*
0009-0004-7174-0644
M
M.B. Patil1
0000-0001-5023-35642
1Dnyanopasak College of Arts, Commerce, Science and Technology Parbhani-431 401, Maharashtra, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) are essential crops for food and nutritional security in India. This study evaluated growth, yield, nutritional quality and economic factors among organic, conventional and integrated agricultural methods.

Methods: The research conducted from 2022 to 2024 at the Organic Farming Research and Training Center, VNMKV, Parbhani, employed a randomized block design with three replications to evaluate conventional, organic and integrated nutrient management (75:25, 50:50, 25:75) and control treatments in wheat and groundnut cultivation. Soil and plant samples were examined for soil characteristics, growth, yield and quality, in addition to the calculation of economic indicators. The data were subjected to statistical analysis via one-way ANOVA (p<0.05).

Result: The findings showed improved soil fertility, with organic carbon rising from 0.41-0.42% to 0.71-0.72% and increased nitrogen and phosphorus, while potassium declined due to crop uptake. Wheat growth was highest under integrated treatments T4 (50% organic + 50% conventional) and T5 (25% organic + 75% conventional). In groundnut, T2 maximized leaf area and biomass, while T5 had the tallest plants and largest nodules. Profitability peaked in T4 ₹ 36,300 ha-1, B:C 1.72). Overall, integrated management enhanced wheat growth and groundnut nodulation, whereas organic inputs improved groundnut biomass, leaf area and soil health.

INTRODUCTION

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) are vital crops for global food and nutritional security (Jukanti et al., 2016; Lungaho et al., 2025). Wheat serves as a fundamental food source for more than one-third of the global population, supplying significant calories and protein. In contrast, groundnuts are an essential source of edible oil and plant protein, especially in developing nations. In India, wheat ranks as the second most crucial cereal following rice, while groundnut accounts for around 25% of total oilseed production, underscoring their importance in the agricultural economy (Chilwal et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2022).
       
Enhancing agricultural output while reducing environmental harm continues to be a significant problem. Conventional agriculture frequently attains greater yields via synthetic inputs and intensive methodologies; yet these practices can adversely affect soil health, biodiversity and long-term sustainability (Kumar et al., 2012; Bhosale et al., 2025). Conversely, organic farming depends on organic amendments, biofertilizers, crop rotations and biological pest management to sustain ecological equilibrium and soil vitality (Akanmu et al., 2023; Mehata et al., 2023). However, its capacity to reliably achieve conventional yields, particularly during the transitional phase, continues to be a subject of contention (Tully et al., 2020).
       
Prior research indicates that organic management improves soil microbial activity and biomass, but yields may decrease in the initial years (Gunapala et al., 1998). Yield disparities between organic and conventional systems frequently hinge on crop variety and management intensity (De Ponti  et al., 2012). Organic techniques have been associated with enhanced wheat grain quality, improved soil health and heightened pest resistance in groundnut (Rempelos et al., 2023; Gelaye et al., 2024). Nevertheless, most of the research has examined these crops in isolation, with few studies analyzing wheat and groundnut concurrently within identical organic and conventional management frameworks (Walkley et al., 1934).
       
Growth metrics, including germination rate, plant height, leaf area index, biomass accumulation and phenology, serve as critical indicators of crop performance and management response (Bray et al., 1945; Ratjen et al., 2018). Evaluating these characteristics for both crops under consistent experimental settings can yield clearer insights into system performance and crop adaptability, particularly in Indian cereal-oilseed systems where integrated research is lacking (AOAC, 1965).
       
Recent ARCC studies underscore the advantages of integrated and organic nutrient management in cereal-legume systems in India, enhancing soil organic carbon, nutrient-use efficiency and yield stability in wheat and groundnut (Mitura  et al., 2023). Nonetheless, comparative system-level analyses under consistent settings are still scarce. This study assesses the growth performance of wheat and ground nuts in organic and conventional settings to promote sustainable cereal-oilseed production.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design
 
The study was conducted over two seasons (2022–2024) at the Organic Farming Research and Training Center, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, a semi-arid region suitable for kharif groundnut and rabi wheat. A randomized block design with three replications evaluated six treatments (T1-T6): conventional, organic, three integrated nutrient levels and an unfertilized control. Plots measured 5 x 4 m with 1 m buffers and treatments were randomly assigned within blocks to minimize positional effects.
 
Sample collection
 
Soil (0-15 cm), plant and seed samples were meticulously collected to assess agricultural systems. Soil was collected at sowing and post-harvest, air-dried, sieved and evaluated for pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon and macro- and micronutrients. Wheat and groundnut were sampled at critical growth stages for morphological characteristics and mature seeds from net plots were evaluated for yield, nutritional content, biochemical properties and pesticide residues. This methodology guaranteed a dependable assessment of soil fertility, crop output and quality across organic, conventional and integrated systems.
 
Treatments and crop management
 
The experiment comprised six treatments to assess nutrient management strategies. T1 employed exclusively conventional inputs (recommended NPK and pesticides), T2 adopted a wholly organic methodology (FYM, vermicompost, biofertilizers), T3-T5 implemented integrated nutrient management with organic to chemical ratios of 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75, while T6 functioned as the control group. Wheat (HD-2189) and groundnut (TAG-24) were planted via seed dibbling at rates of 100 and 80 kg ha-1, with spacings of 30 x 10 cm and 30 x 15 cm, respectively. Weed management was executed via intercultivation at 25 and 40 days after sowing, with irrigation administered as required.
 
Growth parameters
 
Growth parameters were recorded at specific growth stages over two years:
 
Wheat
 
Wheat growth metrics were documented at 60 days after sowing (DAS), 90 DAS and at harvest. Plant height, leaf count per tiller, tiller quantity and panicle length were quantified to evaluate vegetative and reproductive development. Plant height was measured from the base to the spike tip (excluding awns), tillers and leaves were counted non-destructively and panicle length was measured in cm.
 
Groundnut
 
For groundnut, plant height, leaf count per plant, branch quantity and canopy width were measured at 30, 60 and 90 days after sowing, as well as at harvest, to evaluate vegetative growth. Root nodulation was assessed by extracting plants, enumerating nodules and quantifying their dry weight to indicate nitrogen-fixing capacity.
 
Economic analysis
 
An economic study was conducted by determining the cost of cultivation, gross return, net return and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio for each treatment. The cost of cultivation encompassed input and labor expenditures at current market rates. The gross return was calculated based on crop output and market price, while the net return was derived by deducting cultivation costs from the gross return. The B:C ratio was determined by comparing gross return to cultivation cost.
 
 
  
Statistical analysis
 
All experimental observations were documented in triplicate and the average values for each measured parameter were computed. Data was analyzed utilizing SPSS version 26. A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to identify significant differences among treatments at a significance threshold of p<0.05. In instances where substantial differences were identified, the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was utilized for pairwise comparisons of treatment means.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physicochemical analysis of soil before and after sowing of wheat and groundnut
 
Soil analysis before and after wheat and groundnut cultivation showed improved fertility, with notable increases in organic carbon (wheat: 0.42→0.71%; groundnut: 0.41→0.72%), nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn). pH remained stable, EC slightly increased and CaCO3  and potassium declined marginally, likely due to crop uptake. Both crops enhanced soil nutrients and organic matter while maintaining optimal soil conditions (Table 1).

Table 1: Comparative physicochemical analysis of soil before and after sowing of wheat and groundnut.


 
Impact of different treatments on growth parameters in wheat
 
Nutrient and pest management significantly influenced wheat growth and yield. Plant height increased from 60 to 90 DAS, with T4 and T5 reaching 82.87 cm in 2023 (Table 2). Leaf count per tiller was highest in T2 and T5 (up to 8.13), tillers per plant peaked in T3 and T5 (up to 7.83) and panicle length was greatest in T5 and T4 (7.37-7.80 cm). Biomass was highest in T5 (7500 kg ha-1) and lowest in T6 (6200 kg ha-1), indicating that T4 and T5 most effectively enhanced vegetative growth and yield. LSD analysis confirmed significant differences in leaf count and tiller number across treatments.

Table 2: Effect of different nutrient and pest management treatments on plant growth and yield attributes of wheat.


 
Impact of different treatments on growth parameters of groundnut
 
Nutrient and pest management markedly affected groundnut growth, physiology and yield over two years. Plant height was highest in T5 (19.53 cm at 30 DAS, 2022), while leaf area and biomass peaked in T2 (38.57 cm2 and 43.33 g, 2024). Yield was maximized under T5 (2,800 kg ha-1, 2024), reflecting combined vegetative and physiological performance (Table 3). Chlorophyll content was consistently higher in T2 and T5 and root nodules were largest in T5 and T6 (62.80-63.43 g), indicating enhanced nitrogen fixation. LSD analysis confirmed significant treatment effects on leaf area, biomass, chlorophyll and nodulation.

Table 3: Effect of treatments on groundnut yield, physiology and root nodules over two years.


 
Economic analysis of different nutrient management treatments
 
The economic assessment of wheat and groundnut indicated that the combination of 50% organic and 50% conventional inputs (T4) yielded the highest profitability, with a net return of ₹ 40,000 per hectare and a benefit-cost ratio of 1.69. T1 (100% conventional) and T3 (75% organic + 25% conventional) yielded robust returns of ₹ 35,000 ha-1, whereas T2 (100% organic) produced somewhat lower yields of ₹ 33,500 ha-1, however remained economically viable (Table 4). The control (T6) exhibited the lowest yield (₹ 28,000 ha-1, B:C 1.56), underscoring the need of nutrient management. In summary, the partial integration of organic and conventional inputs optimized profitability, with T4 proving to be the most economical option.

Table 4: Economic analysis of wheat and groundnut under different nutrient management treatments.


       
A comparative evaluation of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) within organic and conventional systems underscores the significance of nutrient management in crop development, production and sustainability. Organic methods improve soil fertility and nutrient cycling, facilitating groundnut growth and nodulation, whereas conventional systems encourage quick early wheat growth but may compromise long-term soil production. Their divergent nutrient dynamics render integrated and organic systems crucial for enhancing nutrient-use efficiency and soil sustainability (Fess et al., 2018; Bana et al., 2024; Kiran et al., 2019; Freschet et al., 2015).
       
Post-harvest soil study indicated that fertilizer and pest management measures have minimal influence on soil chemical characteristics. Soil pH remained neutral to slightly alkaline throughout treatments, suggesting that organic and conventional inputs did not induce detrimental chemical alterations impacting nutrient availability or crop growth, in accordance with the findings of Whetton et al., (2022) and Singh et al., (2020) (Whetton et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2020). Electrical conductivity remained within acceptable thresholds, indicating an absence of salt stress due to nitrogen treatments, consistent with findings by Paramesh et al., (2023) and Kamal et al., (2024). A recurring pH and electrical conductivity facilitate effective nutrient absorption, enhance soil biological activity and promote sustained productivity (Paramesh et al., 2023; Kamal et al., 2024).
       
The organic carbon content exhibited significant variation among treatments, with elevated levels observed under organic management, suggesting enhanced soil biological activity and nutrient retention ability. The increased organic carbon in the totally organic treatment aligns with the results of Das et al., (2017), which indicated that farmyard manure and vermicompost augment soil organic matter by slow decomposition (Das et al., 2017). However, Bhattacharyya et al., (2022) revealed that reduced levels in chemically dominated treatments correspond with observations of accelerated organic matter depletion due to continuous fertilizer application (Bhattacharyya et al., 2022). Similarly, Mandal et al., (2012) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) remained within moderate thresholds, signifying sustained buffering capability without influencing nutrient availability, (Mandal et al., 2012). These changes affect long-term soil production and sustainability.
       
The availability of macronutrients differed among treatments and affected crop growth and yield. However, Verma et al., (2019) and Masunga et al., (2016) revealed that nitrogen concentrations were elevated in fertilizer-enhanced treatments owing to quick nutrient availability, whereas organic additions sustained sufficient nitrogen via gradual mineralization and enhanced nutrient-use efficiency (Verma et al., 2019; Masunga et al., 2016). Das et al., (2020) showed that available phosphorus decreased in nutrient-omission treatments but was maintained at moderate levels under integrated management due to balanced nutrient release (Das et al., 2020). Similarly, Rani  et al. (2023) revealed that potassium concentrations were elevated in nutrient-enriched treatments, aligning with findings of potassium deficiency in input-limited systems (Rani et al., 2023).
       
The availability of micronutrients significantly influenced physiological activities and yield development. Copper, iron and manganese were sufficient across treatments, corroborating Shukla et al., (2020), who observed that these micronutrients are seldom limiting in Indo-Gangetic soils (Shukla et al., 2020). Their adequate levels probably facilitated enzyme activity, chlorophyll production and overall plant vitality without inducing concealed deficits. Nonetheless, zinc remained inadequate in certain treatments, especially under nutrient-omission circumstances, consistent with Rehman et al., (2018), who documented prevalent zinc deficits in Indian wheat cultivation areas. Zinc’s involvement in enzyme activation and grain formation suggests that its absence may partially account for diminished growth and yield performance under these treatments (Rehman et al., 2018).
       
Soil analysis conducted before and after harvest indicated that organic and integrated treatments elevated organic carbon and nitrogen levels, hence improving nutrient retention, biological activity and soil fertility.These patterns align with Chen et al., (2024), who illustrated that integrated organic-inorganic nutrient management enhances soil organic reserves and nutrient-use efficiency (Chen et al., 2024). These improvements are agronomically important, as higher carbon and nitrogen support extended vegetative growth, stronger roots and more stable yields in wheat and groundnut. In contrast, reductions in phosphorus and potassium in the untreated control indicate nutrient depletion, as elucidated by Ma et al., (2019) in systems devoid of external inputs (Ma et al., 2019).
       
However, the findings are limited by the short study duration and single location, which may not capture broader environmental variability or long-term soil fertility and yield stability. Short-term results may also underestimate cumulative sustainability and economic impacts due to evolving soil biology and nutrient dynamics.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Conventional agriculture accelerated initial growth and productivity, whereas organic practices enhanced soil vitality and nutrient composition. Comprehensive, longitudinal research across multiple locations is essential to thoroughly assess sustainability trade-offs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by Organic Farming Research and Training Centre, Vasantrao Naik marathwada University Parbhani.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Comparative Analysis of Growth Parameters of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) under Organic and Conventional Farming Systems

    S
    S.B. Bhosale1,*
    0009-0004-7174-0644
    M
    M.B. Patil1
    0000-0001-5023-35642
    1Dnyanopasak College of Arts, Commerce, Science and Technology Parbhani-431 401, Maharashtra, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) are essential crops for food and nutritional security in India. This study evaluated growth, yield, nutritional quality and economic factors among organic, conventional and integrated agricultural methods.

    Methods: The research conducted from 2022 to 2024 at the Organic Farming Research and Training Center, VNMKV, Parbhani, employed a randomized block design with three replications to evaluate conventional, organic and integrated nutrient management (75:25, 50:50, 25:75) and control treatments in wheat and groundnut cultivation. Soil and plant samples were examined for soil characteristics, growth, yield and quality, in addition to the calculation of economic indicators. The data were subjected to statistical analysis via one-way ANOVA (p<0.05).

    Result: The findings showed improved soil fertility, with organic carbon rising from 0.41-0.42% to 0.71-0.72% and increased nitrogen and phosphorus, while potassium declined due to crop uptake. Wheat growth was highest under integrated treatments T4 (50% organic + 50% conventional) and T5 (25% organic + 75% conventional). In groundnut, T2 maximized leaf area and biomass, while T5 had the tallest plants and largest nodules. Profitability peaked in T4 ₹ 36,300 ha-1, B:C 1.72). Overall, integrated management enhanced wheat growth and groundnut nodulation, whereas organic inputs improved groundnut biomass, leaf area and soil health.

    INTRODUCTION

    Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) are vital crops for global food and nutritional security (Jukanti et al., 2016; Lungaho et al., 2025). Wheat serves as a fundamental food source for more than one-third of the global population, supplying significant calories and protein. In contrast, groundnuts are an essential source of edible oil and plant protein, especially in developing nations. In India, wheat ranks as the second most crucial cereal following rice, while groundnut accounts for around 25% of total oilseed production, underscoring their importance in the agricultural economy (Chilwal et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2022).
           
    Enhancing agricultural output while reducing environmental harm continues to be a significant problem. Conventional agriculture frequently attains greater yields via synthetic inputs and intensive methodologies; yet these practices can adversely affect soil health, biodiversity and long-term sustainability (Kumar et al., 2012; Bhosale et al., 2025). Conversely, organic farming depends on organic amendments, biofertilizers, crop rotations and biological pest management to sustain ecological equilibrium and soil vitality (Akanmu et al., 2023; Mehata et al., 2023). However, its capacity to reliably achieve conventional yields, particularly during the transitional phase, continues to be a subject of contention (Tully et al., 2020).
           
    Prior research indicates that organic management improves soil microbial activity and biomass, but yields may decrease in the initial years (Gunapala et al., 1998). Yield disparities between organic and conventional systems frequently hinge on crop variety and management intensity (De Ponti  et al., 2012). Organic techniques have been associated with enhanced wheat grain quality, improved soil health and heightened pest resistance in groundnut (Rempelos et al., 2023; Gelaye et al., 2024). Nevertheless, most of the research has examined these crops in isolation, with few studies analyzing wheat and groundnut concurrently within identical organic and conventional management frameworks (Walkley et al., 1934).
           
    Growth metrics, including germination rate, plant height, leaf area index, biomass accumulation and phenology, serve as critical indicators of crop performance and management response (Bray et al., 1945; Ratjen et al., 2018). Evaluating these characteristics for both crops under consistent experimental settings can yield clearer insights into system performance and crop adaptability, particularly in Indian cereal-oilseed systems where integrated research is lacking (AOAC, 1965).
           
    Recent ARCC studies underscore the advantages of integrated and organic nutrient management in cereal-legume systems in India, enhancing soil organic carbon, nutrient-use efficiency and yield stability in wheat and groundnut (Mitura  et al., 2023). Nonetheless, comparative system-level analyses under consistent settings are still scarce. This study assesses the growth performance of wheat and ground nuts in organic and conventional settings to promote sustainable cereal-oilseed production.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Study design
     
    The study was conducted over two seasons (2022–2024) at the Organic Farming Research and Training Center, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, a semi-arid region suitable for kharif groundnut and rabi wheat. A randomized block design with three replications evaluated six treatments (T1-T6): conventional, organic, three integrated nutrient levels and an unfertilized control. Plots measured 5 x 4 m with 1 m buffers and treatments were randomly assigned within blocks to minimize positional effects.
     
    Sample collection
     
    Soil (0-15 cm), plant and seed samples were meticulously collected to assess agricultural systems. Soil was collected at sowing and post-harvest, air-dried, sieved and evaluated for pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon and macro- and micronutrients. Wheat and groundnut were sampled at critical growth stages for morphological characteristics and mature seeds from net plots were evaluated for yield, nutritional content, biochemical properties and pesticide residues. This methodology guaranteed a dependable assessment of soil fertility, crop output and quality across organic, conventional and integrated systems.
     
    Treatments and crop management
     
    The experiment comprised six treatments to assess nutrient management strategies. T1 employed exclusively conventional inputs (recommended NPK and pesticides), T2 adopted a wholly organic methodology (FYM, vermicompost, biofertilizers), T3-T5 implemented integrated nutrient management with organic to chemical ratios of 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75, while T6 functioned as the control group. Wheat (HD-2189) and groundnut (TAG-24) were planted via seed dibbling at rates of 100 and 80 kg ha-1, with spacings of 30 x 10 cm and 30 x 15 cm, respectively. Weed management was executed via intercultivation at 25 and 40 days after sowing, with irrigation administered as required.
     
    Growth parameters
     
    Growth parameters were recorded at specific growth stages over two years:
     
    Wheat
     
    Wheat growth metrics were documented at 60 days after sowing (DAS), 90 DAS and at harvest. Plant height, leaf count per tiller, tiller quantity and panicle length were quantified to evaluate vegetative and reproductive development. Plant height was measured from the base to the spike tip (excluding awns), tillers and leaves were counted non-destructively and panicle length was measured in cm.
     
    Groundnut
     
    For groundnut, plant height, leaf count per plant, branch quantity and canopy width were measured at 30, 60 and 90 days after sowing, as well as at harvest, to evaluate vegetative growth. Root nodulation was assessed by extracting plants, enumerating nodules and quantifying their dry weight to indicate nitrogen-fixing capacity.
     
    Economic analysis
     
    An economic study was conducted by determining the cost of cultivation, gross return, net return and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio for each treatment. The cost of cultivation encompassed input and labor expenditures at current market rates. The gross return was calculated based on crop output and market price, while the net return was derived by deducting cultivation costs from the gross return. The B:C ratio was determined by comparing gross return to cultivation cost.
     
     
      
    Statistical analysis
     
    All experimental observations were documented in triplicate and the average values for each measured parameter were computed. Data was analyzed utilizing SPSS version 26. A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to identify significant differences among treatments at a significance threshold of p<0.05. In instances where substantial differences were identified, the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was utilized for pairwise comparisons of treatment means.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Physicochemical analysis of soil before and after sowing of wheat and groundnut
     
    Soil analysis before and after wheat and groundnut cultivation showed improved fertility, with notable increases in organic carbon (wheat: 0.42→0.71%; groundnut: 0.41→0.72%), nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn). pH remained stable, EC slightly increased and CaCO3  and potassium declined marginally, likely due to crop uptake. Both crops enhanced soil nutrients and organic matter while maintaining optimal soil conditions (Table 1).

    Table 1: Comparative physicochemical analysis of soil before and after sowing of wheat and groundnut.


     
    Impact of different treatments on growth parameters in wheat
     
    Nutrient and pest management significantly influenced wheat growth and yield. Plant height increased from 60 to 90 DAS, with T4 and T5 reaching 82.87 cm in 2023 (Table 2). Leaf count per tiller was highest in T2 and T5 (up to 8.13), tillers per plant peaked in T3 and T5 (up to 7.83) and panicle length was greatest in T5 and T4 (7.37-7.80 cm). Biomass was highest in T5 (7500 kg ha-1) and lowest in T6 (6200 kg ha-1), indicating that T4 and T5 most effectively enhanced vegetative growth and yield. LSD analysis confirmed significant differences in leaf count and tiller number across treatments.

    Table 2: Effect of different nutrient and pest management treatments on plant growth and yield attributes of wheat.


     
    Impact of different treatments on growth parameters of groundnut
     
    Nutrient and pest management markedly affected groundnut growth, physiology and yield over two years. Plant height was highest in T5 (19.53 cm at 30 DAS, 2022), while leaf area and biomass peaked in T2 (38.57 cm2 and 43.33 g, 2024). Yield was maximized under T5 (2,800 kg ha-1, 2024), reflecting combined vegetative and physiological performance (Table 3). Chlorophyll content was consistently higher in T2 and T5 and root nodules were largest in T5 and T6 (62.80-63.43 g), indicating enhanced nitrogen fixation. LSD analysis confirmed significant treatment effects on leaf area, biomass, chlorophyll and nodulation.

    Table 3: Effect of treatments on groundnut yield, physiology and root nodules over two years.


     
    Economic analysis of different nutrient management treatments
     
    The economic assessment of wheat and groundnut indicated that the combination of 50% organic and 50% conventional inputs (T4) yielded the highest profitability, with a net return of ₹ 40,000 per hectare and a benefit-cost ratio of 1.69. T1 (100% conventional) and T3 (75% organic + 25% conventional) yielded robust returns of ₹ 35,000 ha-1, whereas T2 (100% organic) produced somewhat lower yields of ₹ 33,500 ha-1, however remained economically viable (Table 4). The control (T6) exhibited the lowest yield (₹ 28,000 ha-1, B:C 1.56), underscoring the need of nutrient management. In summary, the partial integration of organic and conventional inputs optimized profitability, with T4 proving to be the most economical option.

    Table 4: Economic analysis of wheat and groundnut under different nutrient management treatments.


           
    A comparative evaluation of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) within organic and conventional systems underscores the significance of nutrient management in crop development, production and sustainability. Organic methods improve soil fertility and nutrient cycling, facilitating groundnut growth and nodulation, whereas conventional systems encourage quick early wheat growth but may compromise long-term soil production. Their divergent nutrient dynamics render integrated and organic systems crucial for enhancing nutrient-use efficiency and soil sustainability (Fess et al., 2018; Bana et al., 2024; Kiran et al., 2019; Freschet et al., 2015).
           
    Post-harvest soil study indicated that fertilizer and pest management measures have minimal influence on soil chemical characteristics. Soil pH remained neutral to slightly alkaline throughout treatments, suggesting that organic and conventional inputs did not induce detrimental chemical alterations impacting nutrient availability or crop growth, in accordance with the findings of Whetton et al., (2022) and Singh et al., (2020) (Whetton et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2020). Electrical conductivity remained within acceptable thresholds, indicating an absence of salt stress due to nitrogen treatments, consistent with findings by Paramesh et al., (2023) and Kamal et al., (2024). A recurring pH and electrical conductivity facilitate effective nutrient absorption, enhance soil biological activity and promote sustained productivity (Paramesh et al., 2023; Kamal et al., 2024).
           
    The organic carbon content exhibited significant variation among treatments, with elevated levels observed under organic management, suggesting enhanced soil biological activity and nutrient retention ability. The increased organic carbon in the totally organic treatment aligns with the results of Das et al., (2017), which indicated that farmyard manure and vermicompost augment soil organic matter by slow decomposition (Das et al., 2017). However, Bhattacharyya et al., (2022) revealed that reduced levels in chemically dominated treatments correspond with observations of accelerated organic matter depletion due to continuous fertilizer application (Bhattacharyya et al., 2022). Similarly, Mandal et al., (2012) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) remained within moderate thresholds, signifying sustained buffering capability without influencing nutrient availability, (Mandal et al., 2012). These changes affect long-term soil production and sustainability.
           
    The availability of macronutrients differed among treatments and affected crop growth and yield. However, Verma et al., (2019) and Masunga et al., (2016) revealed that nitrogen concentrations were elevated in fertilizer-enhanced treatments owing to quick nutrient availability, whereas organic additions sustained sufficient nitrogen via gradual mineralization and enhanced nutrient-use efficiency (Verma et al., 2019; Masunga et al., 2016). Das et al., (2020) showed that available phosphorus decreased in nutrient-omission treatments but was maintained at moderate levels under integrated management due to balanced nutrient release (Das et al., 2020). Similarly, Rani  et al. (2023) revealed that potassium concentrations were elevated in nutrient-enriched treatments, aligning with findings of potassium deficiency in input-limited systems (Rani et al., 2023).
           
    The availability of micronutrients significantly influenced physiological activities and yield development. Copper, iron and manganese were sufficient across treatments, corroborating Shukla et al., (2020), who observed that these micronutrients are seldom limiting in Indo-Gangetic soils (Shukla et al., 2020). Their adequate levels probably facilitated enzyme activity, chlorophyll production and overall plant vitality without inducing concealed deficits. Nonetheless, zinc remained inadequate in certain treatments, especially under nutrient-omission circumstances, consistent with Rehman et al., (2018), who documented prevalent zinc deficits in Indian wheat cultivation areas. Zinc’s involvement in enzyme activation and grain formation suggests that its absence may partially account for diminished growth and yield performance under these treatments (Rehman et al., 2018).
           
    Soil analysis conducted before and after harvest indicated that organic and integrated treatments elevated organic carbon and nitrogen levels, hence improving nutrient retention, biological activity and soil fertility.These patterns align with Chen et al., (2024), who illustrated that integrated organic-inorganic nutrient management enhances soil organic reserves and nutrient-use efficiency (Chen et al., 2024). These improvements are agronomically important, as higher carbon and nitrogen support extended vegetative growth, stronger roots and more stable yields in wheat and groundnut. In contrast, reductions in phosphorus and potassium in the untreated control indicate nutrient depletion, as elucidated by Ma et al., (2019) in systems devoid of external inputs (Ma et al., 2019).
           
    However, the findings are limited by the short study duration and single location, which may not capture broader environmental variability or long-term soil fertility and yield stability. Short-term results may also underestimate cumulative sustainability and economic impacts due to evolving soil biology and nutrient dynamics.

    CONCLUSION

    In conclusion, Conventional agriculture accelerated initial growth and productivity, whereas organic practices enhanced soil vitality and nutrient composition. Comprehensive, longitudinal research across multiple locations is essential to thoroughly assess sustainability trade-offs.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by Organic Farming Research and Training Centre, Vasantrao Naik marathwada University Parbhani.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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