<div>Background: The farmers are rearing duck in small scale in semi intensive system without investing more capital but it contributes a major part to uplift the socio-economic condition of the rural poor people of Assam. The Pati duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) population constitutes a major indigenous non-descript economically important duck variety in the state of Assam. The Harderian gland acts as a part of the head associated lymphoid tissue (HALT) and provides local innate immunity to the upper respiratory system,&nbsp;to the eye and oral cavity. Since literature on histological study of Harderian gland of Pati duck is scant, hence the present study was designed to establish the basic histological details on Harderian gland at different stages of postnatal development of Pati duck of Assam. 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on total forty five (45) numbers Pati duck of Assam at different stages of postnatal development. The experimental birds were brought to the Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati-22 and was sacrificed according to the method of Gracy (1986). For histological study the tissue samples from the Harderian gland of all the age group were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin solution and processed to prepare paraffin blocks as per the procedure described by Luna (1968). The paraffin blocks were sectioned in Shandon Finesse microtome in 5 &micro;m thickness and the sections were stained by different methods as described by Luna (1968).&nbsp; 
 
Result: The Harderian gland of Pati duck had a capsule, the thickness of the capsule of the Harderian gland was increased slightly along the advancement of the age. The capsular connective tissue penetrated the parenchyma of the Harderian gland in the form of septa. The collagen, reticular, elastic and nerve fibers were observed along with the capsule and as well as in the septa. The Harderian gland of the Pati duck was compound tubular gland. The columnar epithelial cells lined the tubules. There was no cortex and medulla in the gland and the tubular structure were uniformly distributed within the lobules. A central canal was present in the gland which converged to the duct of the gland. The lymphocytes, plasma cells were found in the intertubular connective tissue. The numbers or population of plasma cell and lymphocytes were accelerated by the advancement of age. The myoepithelial cells with spindle shaped nucleus were present near the basement membrane close to the secretary cells. The histology of the duct of the Harderian gland of Pati duck was like that of typical hollow tubular organs. There were few lymphatic nodules very distinctly present extended from the lamina propria to the muscle layer.</div>

Histological Study of the Harderian Gland of Pati Duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) of Assam during Postnatal Development

Indigenous bull breeds attain puberty late in life when compared to the breeds of Bos taurus. Cross breeding between Bos taurus and Bos indicus has decreased the age at puberty and increased the total semen production period of bulls. However, some of the drawbacks like impaired semen production, poor libido, and low freezability are common among the crossbred bulls in India. Leydig and Sertoli cells are the most important non&ndash;germinal cells of testes that are essential for sperm production. The development and differentiation of these testicular cells occurs during postnatal period in bull calves and are dependent on the transient rise in gonadotropins, insulin&ndash;like growth factor 1 (IGF&ndash;1), and other growth factors. Administration of gonadotropins or gonadotropin&ndash;releasing hormone (GnRH) before the transient rise initiates the multiplication of Leydig and Sertoli cells, and results in hastened onset of sexual maturity, increased testicular weight, sperm output, and number of germ cells. Supplementation of high&ndash;energy diet during the period of 2&ndash;6 months is essential as it increases the IGF&ndash;1 release that further acts to release GnRH and development of testicular non&ndash;germinal cells. &nbsp;This review highlights some of the developments made with respect to regulation of postnatal development of testes, early detection of fertility, and ways to augment the sperm production capacity.

Regulation of postnatal development of testes and its association with puberty and fertility - A review

<div style="text-align: justify;">The gross studies were conducted on the thymus of 18 postnatal Surti goats. Three distinct parts of thymus were recognized viz., unpaired thoracic part, caudally situated paired body (cervical part) and right and left cranial parts from day old kid to 9 months. The cranial parts were not observed from the age of 12 months onwards. The caudal cervical part of thymus was gradually replaced by adipose tissue between 14 to 48 months, however, traces of thymus embedded within the adipose tissue was observed in cranial mediastinum even at the age of 48 months. The right limb of cervical thymus was slightly longer than the left limb in postnatal Surti goats. The maximum mean weight (26.850 &plusmn; 2.885 g) and volume (22.333 &plusmn; 2.275 cc) of thymus was recorded between 4 to 9 months. Relative weight of thymus was 0.39% in neonatal kids, which was much higher as compared to 0.015 % in adult Surti goats. Negative correlation was observed between age and weight of thymus during 12 to 48 months.</div>

Age related gross morphological studies on the thymus in postnatal Surti goat (Capra hircus)

<div>Background: Frizzled (FZD) family works with the ligand Wnt protein to mediate downstream signals in the Wnt signaling pathway, while playing a superior role in the body. Therefore, this study was carried out to detect the expression patterns of FZD4 at the gene and protein levels. 
 
Methods: 10 developing and postnatal geese dorsal skin of Anser anser (n=5) and Anser cygnoides (n=5). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blotting were used to detect relative expression levels of FZD4. Feather follicles membrane localization was examined using immunohistochemistry. Student&rsquo;s t-test and one-way ANOVA were used for statistical analysis. 
 
Result: The results revealed that the FZD4 was expressed differently at mRNA and protein levels at six stages. Furthermore, the positive expression sites of FZD4 protein were gradually transferred from dermal papilla; pulp; follicle wall and feather sheath. These results suggest that FZD4 is expressed in the growth and development of feather follicles for Anser anser and Anser cygnoides.&nbsp;</div>

​​Expression of Frizzled-4 Gene on Developing and Postnatal Anser anser and Anser cygnoides Feather Follicles

<div>Total 40 non-descriptive deshi chickens were reared in scavenging and intensive farming system (20 for each) from day 1 to 180. Gross examinations of different lymphoid organs and tissues were performed at D1, D30, D90 and D180 for both types of chickens. Tissue samples were stained with H andE stain and AmScope image measurement software was used for histomorphometry. Gross and histomorphometrical parameters of thymus, spleen and cecal tonsils gradually increased significantly (P&pound;0.05) with the advancement of ages from D1 to D180 in both scavenging Deshi chickens (SDC) and captive Deshi chickens (CDC). Gross and histomorphometrical parameters of bursa increased up to D90 and thereafter decreased indicating the involution of bursa by D180. The gross and histomorphometrical parameters of bursa, thymus, spleen and cecal tonsils were significantly (P&pound;0.05) higher in all age groups of CDC (except D1 chicks) as compared with SDC, owing to the different patterns of rearing system.</div>

<div>Effect of Farming Condition on Postnatal Growth and Development of Lymphoid Organs and Tissues in Deshi Chicken (Gallus domesticus) of Bangladesh</div>

Background: The appearance and interaction of spermatozoa with the tubular epithelium is crucial for selection of non-descript goats for breeding purposes at the appropriate time. Further, various interventions can also be made for faster reproductive developments in the goats under study. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The present study was conducted on the testes of non-descript goats divided into three groups, viz. neonatal (within 1 month), prepubertal (from 1-18 months) and pubertal (above 18 months) with 10 healthy animals in each group. The collected samples of testis were processed for scanning electron microscopic study and subsequently, the samples were viewed and the photographs were taken in the facility available at Central Instrumentation Facility (CIF), OUAT, Bhubaneswar. 
&nbsp; 
Result: It was found that the tunica vaginalis of both epididymis and vas deferens were having longitudinal and transverse folds with the depressions or troughs in between them. The epididymis and vas deferens were both lined by ciliated and non-ciliated types of cells. The ciliated cells showed tufts of cilia, where as the free surfaces of the non-ciliated cells were having microvilli. The luminal surface of the epididymal duct gave the appearance of a honeycomb due to the peculiar arrangement of stereocilia projecting from the columnar cells. Spermatozoa were found to be attaching with the epithelial cells of both epididymis and vas deferens, mostly in the pubertal goats. There was presence of apical protrusions on the non-ciliated cells in both epididymis and vas deferens. The luminal surface of vas deferens was raised at regular intervals giving wavy appearance with ridges and grooves. The present study would help in developing a baseline data on the scanning electron microscopic characteristics of different components of tunics of epididymis and vas deferens in non-descript goat at different stages of post-natal life under study. 
&nbsp;

Scanning Electron Microscopic Studies on the Development of Epididymis and Vas Deferens in Non-descript Goat (Capra hircus) during Postnatal Period&nbsp;

<div>Background: The agro-climatic condition of Assam is suitable for duck rearing. Duck rearing contributes a major part to uplift the socio-economic condition of the rural poor people of Assam as well as others states located in the coastal regions of India. The Pati duck (Anasplatyrhynchos domesticus) population constitutes a major indigenous non-descript economically important duck variety in the state of Assam. The Harderian gland acts as a part of the Head Associated Lymphoid Tissue (HALT) <a href="#olah_1992">Olah et al. (1992)</a> and provides local innate immunity to the upper respiratory system, to the eye and oral cavity. Since literature on the postnatal development of Harderian gland of Pati duck is scant, hence the present study was designed to establish the basic anatomical details on Harderian gland at different stages of postnatal development of Pati duck of Assam.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on total forty five (45) numbers Pati duck of Assam at different stages of postnatal development. The experimental birds were brought to the Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati-22 and was sacrificed according to the method of <a href="#gracy_1986">Gracy (1986)</a>. After slaughter, the birds were placed on a clean dissecting table and skin and fascia were reflected carefully without disturbing the other organs of the head region. The Harderian gland was collected by opening the orbital cavity. Thereafter, length, breadth and thickness of the Harderian gland of all age group were recorded with the help of the Vernier Callipers <a href="#mcCance_1974">(McCance, 1974)</a> and topographical location of the gland was observed. The weight of the Harderian gland of all age group was also recorded with the help of electronic balance.&nbsp; 
 
Result: The Harderian gland of Pati duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) was located &nbsp;within the orbit. The gland was flat, oval and coma shaped with irregular border. The gland had two surfaces i.e. the parietal and visceral surfaces, two borders and two blunt poles. The parietal surface was found convex and attached to fascia covered by the nasal bones and interorbital septa. The visceral surface was concave and it was attached loosely to the eye ball with fascia. The lobes of the Harderian gland became more prominent with the advancement of the age. The gland was light pink in colour. The arterial blood and the venus drainage was by provided by the ophthalmic artery and vein, respectively. The slender branch of oculomotor nerve innervated the Harderian gland. The result reflected an ascending trend from 0 week age group to 42 week age group in regard to all the gross parameters. There were slight difference between left and right glands for all the gross parameters but such variations were not statistically significant (P&gt;0.05). Each lobe of the Harderian Gland of Pati duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) had a single short duct which opened into the conjunctival sac at the base of the 3rd eyelid.&nbsp;</div>

<div>Post Natal Gross Anatomical Studies on the Harderian Gland of Pati Duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) of Assam</div>

Maturation and fertilization in vitro and further development to full terms of pre-pubertal mammalian oocytes has been confirmed in several mammalian species. Fetal and postnatal development of female germ cells has been described. Furthermore, oocyte maturation and fertilization processes in addition to further embryonic development were described of mammalian oocytes obtained during pre-pubertal, pubertal, follicular and luteal stages. In addition, the assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs) were used for potential exploiting of pre-pubertal oocytes. The ARTs included were maturation and culture conditions, fertilization procedures in addition to reconstruction of artificial oocytes. Therefore, the articles concerning mammalian oocyte growth and development during fetal and postnatal periods in addition to maturation and further embryonic development were used for writing the manuscript and the articles were collected from databases of ScienceDirect, PubMed and google scholar. Maturation occurred for GV oocytes obtained from fetal stage but they were unable to develop further. On the other hand, pre-pubertal oocytes obtained from post-natal stage of different mammalian species were able to mature and develop to full terms after fertilization and culture in vitro. The female age were differed between mammalian species to collect competent pre-pubertal oocytes. The applied assisted reproductive techniques were resulted in significant substantial increase of pre-pubertal oocyte development. It could be concluded that pre-pubertal oocytes could be used to shortening the interval between generations and exploitation of genetically superior animals through assisted reproductive techniques.

Growth and Developmental Competence of Pre-pubertal Mammalian Oocytes: Applications of Assisted Reproductive Techniques

Background: The process of adaptation to life outside the uterus is known to be a critical period in neonatal foals. Several studies have shown that there are significant changes in the physiological parameters of foals during this period. In this study, the changes in hematologic parameters in thoroughbred foals (n=35) at postnatal days 1 and 4 and possible differences between genders were investigated. 
 
Methods: This study consisted of blood samples obtained from female (n=11) and male (n=24) thoroughbred foals whose healthy pregnancy processes were followed and no pathology was observed at birth. Blood samples were collected on the 1st&nbsp;and 4th&nbsp;postnatal days. All foals included in the study (n=35) were randomly selected from among healthy individuals with IgG levels above 800 mg/dL, which were measured to determine the immune levels of the foals and did not show any signs of disease in clinical examinations. In this study, white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil (NEU), lymphocyte (LYM), monocyte (MONO), eosinophil (EOS), basophil (BASO), red blood cell (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (PCV), mean cell volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), platelets (PLT) and red blood cell distribution width (RDW) were examined according to gender and age. 
 
Result: It was determined that there were significant differences in hematologic parameters between different age groups of same genders. While there was a significant difference in neutrophil percentages only in the 4-day-old age group, there was no statistically significant difference in other parameters.

Investigation of the Effect of Age and Gender on Hematologic Parameters in Neonatal Foals

<div>Background: The development of connective tissue in the fetus during the ruminant gestation period increases the need for vitamin C, which is then further increased by the course of pregnancy and lactation. As pregnancy and lactation develop, free radicals and MDA produced as a result of oxidative stress interact with functional groups in the cell, resulting in cell damage. The oxidant/antioxidant balance at this time can be calculated using the total antioxidant status, total oxidant status and oxidative status index values. This study aimed to investigate the effect of two different doses of vitamin C on oxidative stress indicators in late gestation, early and late lactation ewes and their offspring. 
 
Methods: In the study, 48 ewes of the German Meat Merino and Akkaraman breeds that were developed by crossbreeding were employed. After breeding, four groups were formed from pregnant and non-pregnant ewes. Negative Pregnancy Control group was formed from non-pregnant ewes. Positive Pregnancy Control, Positive Pregnancy Practice 1 and Positive Pregnancy Practice 2 groups were formed from pregnant ewes. After the 90th day of pregnancy, ewes in the Negative Pregnancy Control and Positive Pregnancy Control groups received saline (0.9% NaCl, 2.5 ml) injections every week concurrently with the other pregnant groups until delivery. From the 90th day of pregnancy until birth, sheep participating in Positive Pregnancy Practices 1 and 2 received weekly injections of vitamin C (625 mg/CA, 2.5 ml and 1250 mg/CA, 5 ml, respectively).&nbsp; 
 
Result: In the study, no statistically significant difference was found in serum MDA, TAS, TOS and OSI levels between late pregnancy, lactation and born lambs. While none of the pregnant ewes in this study aborted, vitamin C injection significantly decreased postnatal lamb mortality. This showed that vitamin C helped pregnant ewes feel less stressed throughout pregnancy and helped lower postnatal lamb mortality. In pregnant ewes, AO-effective vitamin C supplementation has been shown to have possible beneficial effects on both maternal and offspring health, whereby the number of stillbirths was reduced by vitamin C supplementation, especially in Positive Pregnancy Practice 2 lambs.</div>

Effect of Vitamin C at Different Doses on the Oxidant/Antioxidant System of Ewes During Late Pregnancy, Early and Late Lactation and Their Lambs