Background: Tiletamine-zolazepam is a combination of dissociative anaesthetic with benzodiazepine agent. It is an injectable anaesthetic agent which is either used alone or in combination with other anaesthetic drugs. The objective of this study is to evaluate the anaesthetic effects of tiletamine-zolazepam alone and in combination with xylazine and xylazine-ketamine in dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen dogs irrespective of age, breed, sex and body weight (requiring various surgical corrections) were randomly divided into three groups viz., A, B and C. Atropine sulphate (0.025mg/kg SC) was administered in all the groups followed by tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group A, xylazine (0.5 mg/kg IM) and tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group B and xylazine (0.5 mg/kg IM), ketamine (2.5 mg/kg IV) and tiletamine-zolazepam (till effect IV) in group C. A gap of 10 minutes was kept between administration of each drug. The efficacy of the anaesthesia was evaluated by observing clinico-physiological parameters i.e. induction dose, induction time, duration of anaesthesia, sternal recumbency time, complete recovery time, jaw relaxation score, pedal reflex score, palpebral reflex score (PLR), heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR), rectal temperature, capillary refill time (CRT), systolic arterial pressure, diastolic arterial pressure, mean arterial pressure and haemoglobin oxygen saturation. These clinico-physiological parameters were evaluated at different time intervals i.e. 0, 10, 15, 25, 35, 45, 60, 75, 90 and 105 minutes. 
 
Result: The induction dose of tiletamine-zolazepam observed in group A, B and C were 6.5, 5.5 and 4.0 mg/kg body weight, respectively on intravenous administration. Analgesia and muscle relaxation was observed slightly better in group C in comparison to group A and B. Heart rate increased and respiration rate decreased post induction in all three groups. Tiletamine-zolazepam with its fast and smooth induction, intermediate duration of action, excellent muscle relaxation and good compatibility with xylazine and ketamine, was found to be an effective general anaesthetic either alone or in combination. Group C with xylazine, ketamine and tiletamine-zolazepam combination required significantly lower induction dose and provided longer duration of anaesthesia in comparison to group A and B.Combining xylazine and xylazine-ketamine as pre-medicants at sub-anaesthetic doses reduced the induction dose of tiletamine-zolazepam, provided longer duration of anaesthesia, good muscle relaxation and stable physiological parameters.&nbsp;

Anaesthetic Evaluation of Various Combinations of Xylazine, Ketamine and Tiletamine-zolazepam in Dogs

Background: The present study was conducted to evaluate the anaesthetic efficacy of butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine in combination with thiopentone sodium for inducing general anaesthesia in healthy dogs. 
 
Methods: Eighteen adult dogs of either sex were randomly divided into three groups (ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO) with six animals in each. Ten minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration, all the dogs were administered with glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg I/M. The animals of group ButTHIO, DexTHIO and AceTHIO were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. General anaesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium @ 18 mg/kg b.wt. intravenously. Onset of sedation and anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia, complete recovery from anaesthesia and different reflexes were recorded for evaluation of anaesthetic efficacy. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was quicker in group DexTHIO followed by AceTHIO and ButTHIO. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery were significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer in group DexTHIO as compared to group ButTHIO and AceTHIO. Analgesia was excellent in all the groups but persisted for longer duration in animals of group DexTHIO. All the reflexes abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexTHIO. It could be concluded that thiopentone sodium in combination with either dexmedetomidine or butorphanol or acepromazine can be used safely for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-thiopentone combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Comparative Anaesthetic Evaluation of Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine or Acepromazine in Combination with Thiopentone Sodium for Inducing General Anaesthesia in Healthy Dogs

Background: Propofol is intravenous short acting general anaesthetic most popular drug for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in veterinary practice due to its rapid induction and smooth recovery. However, as sole general anaesthetic, it is unsatisfactory because of its poor analgesic property and causing hypotension and apnoea. Therefore, it commonly used in combination with opioid or alpha 2 agonist to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sedative, analgesic and anaesthetic efficacy of propofol in combination with butorphanol, dexmedetomidine or acepromazine premedication in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present study was conducted on 18 healthy adult dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (ButP, DexP and AceP) with six animals in each. Glycopyrrolate @ 0.02 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly 10 minutes prior to the anaesthetic administration in all the dogs. The animals of group ButP, DexP and AceP were premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol @ 0.3 mg/kg b.wt., dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg b.wt. and acepromazine @ 0.4 mg/kg b.wt. respectively. Ten minutes later propofol was injected intravenously at a dose of 7 mg/kg b.wt. to induce general anesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 25.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation and induction of anaesthesia was earlier in group DexP followed by AceP and ButP. Group DexP exhibited significantly (P&lt;0.05) longer duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery than groups ButP and AceP. All the groups had excellent analgesia; however animals of group DexP showed longer duration of analgesia. All the reflexes were abolished completely with longer duration of muscle relaxation in group DexP. The above anaesthetic study suggests that propofol in combination with dexmedetomidine; butorphanol or acepromazine can be safely used for inducing surgical anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-propofol combination produced prolonged duration of anaesthesia with better quality suitable for long surgical procedure in dogs.

Sedative, Analgesic and Anaesthetic Evaluation of Propofol in Combination with Butorphanol, Dexmedetomidine and Acepromazine in Clinically Healthy Dogs

The objective of study was to assess the quality of analgesia and record the alteration in anaesthetic indices following lumbosacral administration of lignocaine alone @ 4 mg/kg body weight in group I and its combination with butorphanol@ 0.04 mgkg body weight in group II. Onset of analgesia in both groups was evident at 5 min and reached to peak level at 15 minutes of observation. The incoordination and sedation was more marked in butorphanol groups as compared to lignocaine groups. The onset of analgesia was delayed in group II as compared to group I, whereas, duration of analgesia and standing time was significantly higher (P&lt;0.05) in group II as compared to group I. Time to recumbency did not revealed significant variation between groups. It is concluded that lignocaine alone and in-combination produced satisfactory onset of analgesia but it remained longer time in lignocaine &ndash; butorphanol group (group II) with respect to duration of analgesia and time to standing. However, this combination also showed the marked sedation and incoordination. Hence, butorphanol in combination with lignocaine was considered better for producing analgesia for longer duration operative procedure.

Anaesthetic evaluation of lignocaine alone and in-combination with butorphanol in goats

Background: Dystocia in dairy animals remains major concern causing huge economical losses of farmers. Over the past years, field veterinarian relieves dystocia via maneuvering, fetotomy, modified Schaffers and cesarean methods under local or regional anaesthesia which is always stressful and painful procedure leading to excessive tissue damage. Considering the involved stress and further conception during relieving dystocia under local or regional anaesthesia is always questionable. Hence, the present study was aimed to relieve dystocia in buffalo without stress by improving gentle handling of uterus during cesarean or obstetrical method under the anaesthetic combination of xylazine-ketamine-guaifenesin under field condition.&nbsp; 
 
Methods: The present study was undertaken in twelve clinical cases of buffaloes with history of dystocia irrespective of age and breed and they were sedated with xylazine and subjected to obstetrical or cesarean procedure under ketamine and guaifenesin anaesthetic protocol. 
 
Result: Twelve buffaloes with average age between 3-8 years and body weight 389.66&plusmn;19.56 kg reported to hospital and amongst them eight were primiparous. Among maternal dystocia, uterine torsion was most common followed by incomplete cervical dilation whereas in foetal dystocia, malpositioned foetus and emphysematous foetus was reported. Tachycardia and hypothermia were consistent findings in all animals. The alkaline phosphatase, SGPT and SGOT has been increased significantly due to muscular damage. Mean duration of general anaesthesia required for obstetrical and cesarean procedure was 35.00&plusmn;0.25 min and 132.00&plusmn;0.18 min, respectively. The present study was concluded that, use of ketamine-Guaifenesin combination premedicated with xylazine hydrochloride produced excellent muscle relaxation during obstetrical and cesarean procedure in buffaloes characterized by loss of abdominal muscle tone, stable respiration and minimal cardiopulmonary changes.

Evaluation of Anaesthetic Efficacy of Xylazine-Ketamine-Guaifenesin Combination for Relieving Dystocia in Buffaloes

<div>Background: Endotracheal intubation for inhalation anaesthesia in pigs is not considered a good anaesthetic method as it is technically difficult because of oral anatomy and the presence of excess tissues in the oropharyngeal region. Moreover, the major limitation of inhalation anaesthesia is that it requires the use of a cumbersome and costly anaesthetic machine, including a suitable breathing system and vaporizer and is the exposure of operating-room personnel to the pollution in the ambient air. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of propofol, ketamine and their combination &lsquo;Ketofol&rsquo; as a TIVA in pigs. 
 
Methods: The study was conducted in eighteen piglets of either sex. The piglets were randomly divided into three groups with six animals in each group. All the three groups were premedicated with Atropine sulphate @ 0.04mg/kg body weight and Xylazine Hydrochloride @ 1mg/kg body weight I.M. and Medazolam @ 0.5mg/kg body weight I.M. with minimum forcible restraint as pre-anaesthetic. In group-I, propofol @ 5mg/kg body weight, in group-II, ketamine @ 5mg/kg body weight and in group-III, ketofol @ 4mg/kg body weight was administered intravenously for induction after 15 minutes of pre-anaesthetic administration. Surgical anaesthesia was maintained for 90 minutes in all three groups viz. group-I, group-II and group-III with propofol @ 2.5mg/kg, ketamine @ 2.5mg/kg and ketofol @ 2mg/kg body weight respectively by intermittent bolus injection (IBI) technique. Clinical and cardiopulmonary profiles were evaluated before administration of the anaesthetic agent (0 minutes) then at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes during and after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect. 
 
Result: The study revealed that induction time (IT), duration of analgesia (DOA), duration of recumbency (DOR) and recovery time (RT) interval showed better result in the combination of ketamine and propofol group as compared to propofol and ketamine-induced individual group. The temperature and respiration rate was significantly decreased in all the groups at 30 minutes during TIVA whereas heart rate was significantly increased in all the groups at 15 minutes. The combination of ketamine and propofol group showed a consistent diastolic pressure and systolic pressure during the entire period of anaesthesia. The SPO2 in the ketamine-induced group showed a significant decrease (P&lt;0.01) as compared to the propofol and ketofol group. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery.</div>

Anaesthetic Effects of Propofol, Ketamine and their Combination (Ketofol) as Total Intravenous Anaesthesia (TIVA) in Pigs

<div>Background: As cats undergo stress at the time of presentation before surgery and therefore sedation is required often. It is very difficult to choose a balanced anaesthetic protocol during the surgical intervention in the case of a cat. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of ketamine hydrochloride in combination with midazolam, dexmedetomidine and butorphanol as balanced anaesthesia on clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in the surgical management of cats undergoing neutering. 
&nbsp; 
Methods: The study was performed on 18 clinical cases of cats which were brought to the Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry (CVSc and AH), Central Agricultural University (CAU), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram for elective surgery such as neutering. Cats were randomly divided into 3 equal groups, i.e. Gr. A, Gr. B and Gr. C. Animals were premedicated with glycopyrrolate @ 0.01 mg/kg, i/m. After 10 minutes of premedication, in Gr. A ketamine hydrochloride @15 mg/kg and midazolam @ 0.5 mg/kg, in Gr. B ketamine hydrochloride @10 mg/ kg and dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg /kg and in Gr. C ketamine hydrochloride @ 5 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine@ 5 mcg/kg and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly. Clinico-physiological and haemato-biochemical profiles were evaluated at 0 minute (baseline), then at 15, 30 and 60 minutes after administration of anaesthetic agents to evaluate their anaesthetic effect.&nbsp; 
 
Result: In the case of time for induction, the quality of induction, assessment of peri-operative analgesia, depth of anaesthesia and quality of recovery there was no significant difference among all three groups. In Gr. B, animals showed significantly higher duration of recumbency (DOE) and recovery. The assessment of peri-operative analgesic effect among the groups revealed that analgesia during the perioperative period appeared best in Gr. C protocol. In regards to depth of anaesthesia, ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol group showed a better result. Rectal temperature decreased significantly (P&gt;0.05) up to 60th minutes in Gr. A, but it remained within the physiological range. Heart rate raised significantly (p&lt;0.05) from the baseline (0 minutes) onwards and decreased significantly (p&lt;0.05) till the end (60 minutes) of the study in Gr. C. The respiration rate was significantly (p&lt;0.01) different in between time intervals for all three groups. No significant difference was observed on haemato-biochemical observation except glucose level which significantly increased after induction of anaesthesia. In conclusion, treatment with ketamine hydrochloride in combination with dexmedetomidine and butorphanol led to acceptable sedation and mild changes in clinico-physiological, haematological, serum biochemical profile in comparison to the other two groups.</div>

Evaluation of Ketamine Hydrochloride in Combination with Midazolam, Dexmedetomidine and Butorphanol as Balanced Anaesthesia in Cats

<div style="text-align: justify;">In this study, four lactation curve models viz. Gamma-type function (GF), Mixed log function (MLF), Exponential function (EF) and Polynomial regression function (PRF) were fitted to predict the weekly test-day milk yields pertaining to 961 Murrah buffaloes progeny of 101 sires spread over a period of 36 years (1977-2012) maintained at ICAR-NDRI, Karnal. The PRF was the best fit with highest R2 (99.3%) and lowest RMSE (0.3%) which was used subsequently to estimate the first lactation 305-day or less milk yield (FL305DMY) from weekly test-day milk yields. The sires were evaluated using four linear models viz. Least Squares(LSQ), Simple Regressed Least Squares (SRLS), Sire (BLUP-SM) and animal (BLUP-AM) models from actual as well as PRF predicted FL305DMYs. BLUP-AM was the most efficient, among the sire evaluation models, in predicting the breeding values. Sire evaluation on the basis of predicted data (using PRF) was similar to that on the basis of actual data indicating that the best fitted lactation curve function can be used as an alternative for early animal evaluation and reduction of generation interval.</div>

Modeling lactation curve for genetic evaluation of Murrah buffaloes

<div>Background: Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, tachycardia, catalepsy or muscle rigidity and therefore commonly used in combination with alpha 2 agonist or opioid to minimize the untoward effects. The aim of the present anaesthetic study was to evaluate the clinico-physiological effects of ketamine alone and in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. 
 
Methods: The present anaesthetic study was conducted on 18 (eighteen) healthy dogs of either sex and randomly divided into three groups (K, DK and BK) with six animals in each group. Atropine sulphate @ 0.04 mg/ kg was administered intramuscularly 15 minutes prior to anaesthetic study to all the animals. In group K, ketamine HCl alone was administered @ 5 mg/kg by slow i/v and kept as control. In group DK and BK, after administration of atropine sulphate 15 minutes later dexmedetomidine @ 10 &micro;g/kg i/m and butorphanol @ 0.2 mg/kg i/m were administered respectively. Ten minutes later ketamine HCl was administered @ 5 mg/kg slowly intravenously in both group DK and BK to induce surgical stage of general anaesthesia. The following clinical parameters were recorded viz., onset of sedation, onset of anaesthesia, degree of analgesia, extent of muscle relaxation, duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery. The physiological parameters (rectal temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate) were recorded before anaesthetic study at 0 min. and at 10 minutes after preanaesthetic administration and then at 10, 20, 40, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes after ketamine anaesthesia. All the data were analyzed using SPSS v 15.0 statistics software program and presented as mean&plusmn;Standard Error. 
 
Result: The onset of sedation was quicker in group DK followed by group K and BK. Duration of anaesthesia and complete recovery in group DK was significantly (p&lt;0.01) longer than in group K and BK. The degree of analgesia was excellent in group DK and good in group K and BK. The extent of muscle relaxation was excellent in group DK, good in group BK and was poor in group K. The physiological parameters showed transient changes which compensated and remained within normal range during the observation period. The above anaesthetic study suggests that ketamine in combination with dexmedetomidine or butorphanol can be safely used for inducing adequate anaesthesia in dogs. However, dexmedetomidine-ketamine can be used safely for longer duration of surgical procedures in dogs.</div>

Evaluation of Clinico-physiological Effects of Ketamine Alone and in Combination with Dexmedetomidine or Butorphanol in Atropinized Dogs

<div>Background:&nbsp;Nearly all anaesthetic agent decreases renal and hepatic blood flow, so anaesthetic agents should be selected properly in patients particularly with pre-existing renal and hepatic impairment. The present study conducted to evaluate the effect of acepromazine, midazolam and dexmedetomidine as pre-anaesthetic agent followed by induction with propofol and maintenance with isoflurane on kidney and liver function of client-owned female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. 
 
Methods:&nbsp;Thirty-two clinically healthy female dogs were randomly divided into four groups with ten animals in the groups A and B and six animals in groups C and D for elective ovariohysterectomy. Animals were premedicated with acepromazine-butorphanol in group A, midazolam-butorphanol in group B, dexmedetomidine (I/M)- butorphanol in group C and dexmedetomidine (I/V)- butorphanol in group D. Animals in all four groups were induced (till effect) with propofol and maintained with isoflurane.&nbsp; 
 
Result: All the groups showed non-significant marginal decline in BUN and serum creatinine at 5 minutes after pre-medication. Serum AST and ALT were non-significant decreased in groups A and B and non-significant increase in groups C and D during observations. Serum albumin and globulin gradually but non-significantly decrease in group A after premedication to T20 during anesthesia with isoflurane, then gradually increase upto extubation, but values remained lower in comparison to base values.</div>