The projected rise in global population to 9.3 billion by 2050 is expected to intensify food demand (FAO, 2023). However, intensive agriculture has led to environmental problems such as soil degradation, biodiversity loss and water pollution. In response, sustainable farming systems that maintain ecological balance and ensure food security are increasingly prioritized (Reganold and Wachter, 2016; Seufert and Ramankutty, 2017).
       
Organic farming has emerged as a viable alternative due to its potential to reduce environmental impact, enhance soil fertility and lower the carbon footprint (Willer and Lernoud 2023; Akshay et al., 2018; Somdutt et al., 2023). By 2022, organic agriculture reached 76.4 million hectares globally with over 3.7 million producers (FiBL, 2023). Post-COVID-19 shifts in consumer awareness have further boosted demand for organic products (Lernoud et al., 2022). In Turkey, organic farming has been legally regulated since 1984 and continues to expand with state support, though lower yields remain a key challenge due to input restrictions (TÜİK, 2023; Rahmann et al., 2022).
       
Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is among the most economically significant vegetable crops and is widely cultivated under organic systems. Global production increased from 33.6 million tons in 2016 to 36.3 million tons in 2023 (FAOSTAT, 2023). In Turkey, where around 90% of the yield is consumed fresh, varieties such as ‘California Wonder’ and ‘Kandil’ are commonly used  (TÜİK 2023; Keser et al., 2021). Nevertheless, organic pepper production faces challenges like pest pressure, nutrient deficiencies and the limited availability of high-yielding varieties suited to organic systems (Gutiérrez ​et al., 2021).
       
Hybrid varieties are increasingly considered in organic farming due to their potential for higher yield, disease resistance and improved fruit quality (Menezes et al., 2018; Rahmann et al., 2022). Yet, their performance can vary significantly depending on environmental conditions and organic system constraints (Mäder et al., 2020). While hybrids may outperform standard varieties in some traits, their long-term adaptability under organic management remains uncertain (Boschiero et al., 2023).
       
This study evaluates five hybrid and five standard bell pepper cultivars under organic farming conditions in Turkey. The objective is to compare their growth, yield and fruit quality to assess the feasibility of integrating hybrid varieties into organic systems and support sustainable vegetable production strategies.

The study was conducted on an organic farm in Kuşadası, Aydın, Turkey—an area known for organic fruit, vegetable and livestock production. Kuşadası borders İzmir to the north, the Aegean Sea to the west and Söke to the east and south. The trial site lies at 5/ m elevation (37^o45'55.72"N, 27^o17'27.28"E) and spans 265/ km². The region has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild winters. Annual rainfall ranges between 615.5-672.1/ mm and the average temperature is around 17^oC. Soil properties, including texture, pH, organic matter and nutrient levels, are detailed in Table 1.


       
This experiment was conducted on an organic farming farm located in the Aydın region during the 2022-2023 growing season (Spring and Autumn). The plant material consisted of ten different bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)  cultivars, including five standard cultivars (‘Kandil’, ‘BT Süper’, ’BT Doru’, ‘BT Dik’ ‘11-B-14’) (Fig 1) and five hybrid cultivars (‘İstek ’, ‘Tesla’, ‘Doğanay’, ‘Dut’, ‘Aktör’) (Fig 2). These cultivars are commercial cultivars selected based on their economic significance and extensive regional adaptation.




       
Seedlings of all cultivars were grown under controlled greenhouse conditions and sown on March 11, 2022. After adaptation, they were transplanted into the field on May 9, 2022, at the optimal physiological stage with 2-4 true leaves and a well-developed root system. Before planting, seedlings were hardened and care was taken to preserve root integrity. Light irrigation was applied immediately after transplanting to reduce stress and ensure root establish-ment. All cultivars were sown and transplanted simultaneously. The trial site in Aydın has a Mediterranean climate with a long, warm growing season, no frost risk and ample sunlight-ideal for pepper cultivation. The region’s soil structure and irrigation capacity support sustainable organic farming. Prior to transplanting, the soil was plowed and tilled twice using a rotary tiller to ensure fine preparation for flat bed planting. During the trial, irrigation was managed via a drip system with 30 cm emitter spacing and 2L/h discharge rate. Water was applied when 25% of the available moisture in the 60 cm root zone was depleted. Fertilizers and crop protection products used during the trial are listed in Table 2. Plant growth parameters, including plant height, stem diameter and biomass, were measured during the vegetative-to-generative transition (50-60 days after sowing). The first harvest began around July 10, approximately 68 days after sowing, varying by cultivar. Yield data were collected starting from the first harvest and fruit characteristics were measured from 10 randomly selected fruits per harvest.


       
The field trial used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications (Mäder et al., 2020; Boschiero et al., 2023). This design suits homogeneous fields, allowing statistically reliable comparisons of cultivars. Each replication had 2 m × 5 m plots with 30 plants, spaced 1 m between rows and 0.4 m within rows to optimize growth and resource access. This layout minimized plant competition and accurately reflected cultivar differences. It is also suitable for organic farming studies, limiting environmental effects and revealing genetic potential (Acar, 2020; Rahmann et al., 2017; Pimenta et al., 2018).
 
Measured Parameters, to evaluate plant growth, yield and fruit quality, the following parameters were assessed
 
Observations recorded
 
Plant growth parameters, like plant height was measured from stem base to the highest point (cm). Plant diameter was determined by measuring the widest crown span (cm). Root fresh weight was recorded immediately after harvest (g) and root dry weight after oven-drying at 65^oC to constant weight (g). Shoot fresh weight included stems and leaves weighed fresh (g), while shoot dry weight was measured after oven-drying (g). Leaf fresh weight was measured by weighing detached leaves (g) and leaf dry weight after drying to constant weight (g).
 
Yield parameters
 
Total yield (g/plant); fruits harvested from each plant were weighed and the total yield per plant was calculated, number of fruits per plant (units/plant); the fruits on each plant were counted and the total number of fruits per plant was determined, fruit fresh weight (g); fresh fruits were weighed immediately after harvest and their fresh weights were recorded and fruit dry weight (g); the fruits were dried to remove moisture and their dry weights were measured.
 
Fruit quality parameters
 
Average fruit weight (g); the total fruit weight was divided by the number of fruits and the average weight per fruit was calculated, fruit length (mm); the length of each fruit from the stem to the tip was measured with a caliper and recorded, fruit width (mm); the widest horizontal part of the fruit was measured using a caliper and determined, fruit flesh thickness (mm); after the fruit was cut crosswise, the thickness of the edible flesh, excluding the skin and core, was measured.
       
Chemical Quality Parameters, water-soluble solids (WSDM, %) in fruit juice were measured using a refractometer (ATAGO PAL-1). pH was determined with a digital pH meter (Mettler Toledo Seven Compact). Titratable acidity (TA, %) was calculated by titrating fruit juice with 0.1 N NaOH to pH 8.01, using a burette and pH meter, expressed as citric acid equivalent. Electrical conductivity (EC, mS/cm), indicating ion content, was measured with an EC meter (Mettler Toledo Seven 2 Go S3). This methodology enabled comprehensive evaluation of vegetative traits, yield and fruit quality of standard and hybrid bell pepper cultivars under field conditions.
 
Data evaluation
 
Data were analyzed using SPSS 23. A two-way ANOVA compared vegetative growth, fruit quality and yield of standard and hybrid bell pepper cultivars, assessing main and interaction effects. Duncan’s multiple range test (P≤0.05) identified group differences, with means ranked and labeled to show statistical significance (Duncan, 1955).

Measurements of plant growth parameters and their evaluation
 
The analysis revealed statistically significant differences (P≤0.05) between standard and hybrid cultivars in plant height and diameter (Fig 3). Standard cultivars showed higher values, with average plant height and diameter of 41.30 cm and 27.24 cm, respectively. Among hybrids, ‘İstek’ recorded the highest plant height (48.10 cm), while ‘Dut’ had the largest diameter (28.82 cm). These results are consistent with Başay (2020), who reported 43.27 cm height and 39.07 cm diameter for the organic ‘Kandil’ cultivar. Gülcan (2020a) found plant heights between 38.0 and 41.1 cm. Özgen and Balkaya (2021) reported fruit lengths ranging from 59.63 to 76.93 mm and widths from 47.31 to 55.86 mm for hybrid bell pepper candidates grown in the autumn greenhouse season. Similarly, De Lima et al. (2019) and Binbir and Baş (2010) observed a wider plant height range (25-65 cm) in local Capsicum annuum L. cultivars.


       
These variations are attributed to genetic diversity, environmental adaptation and compatibility with organic farming conditions. The superior performance of standard cultivars in organic systems may be linked to their growth stability under low-input conditions (Rahmann et al., 2017). In contrast, hybrids bred for conventional systems may have reduced nutrient uptake and stress tolerance in organic environments (Mäder et al. 2020). Therefore, breeding programs should be redesigned to enhance hybrid adaptability to organic farming (Rahmann et al., 2017). From a food security perspective, using cultivars well-suited to organic conditions is crucial for ensuring sustainable productivity. Future research should focus on improving stress resistance in breeding programs tailored for organic systems (De Lima et al., 2019).
       
Significant differences (P≤0.05) were observed between standard and hybrid Capsicum annuum L. cultivars in root fresh/dry weight, shoot fresh/dry weight and leaf fresh/dry weight (Table 3). Hybrid cultivars generally showed higher biomass accumulation. The hybrid ‘Dut’ recorded the highest root fresh (40.98 g) and root dry weight (13.86 g), while ‘Aktör’ had the highest shoot fresh weight (320.0 g) and ‘İstek’ showed the highest leaf fresh weight (10.75 g). In contrast, standard cultivars outper- formed in tissue density-related traits. ‘Kandil’ had the highest shoot dry weight (65.5 g) and ‘BT Süper’ showed the highest leaf dry weight (2.05 g). These results suggest that while hybrids are superior in fresh biomass production, standard cultivars may offer structural resilience advantageous in organic farming systems.


       
A significant feature × cultivar interaction (P≤0.05) was found for all measured parameters. The findings indicate that hybrids like ‘Dut’, ‘Aktör’ and ‘İstek’ have strong vegetative growth, whereas standard cultivars such as ‘Kandil’ and ‘BT Süper’ provide higher tissue density. This reflects a trade-off between biomass accumulation and structural integrity under organic conditions.
       
The findings align with Lee and Son (2019), who developed a nondestructive system for continuously measuring fresh weight in soilless bell pepper cultivation, confirming its reliability. Similarly, Lee et al., (2018) reported 54.638 g root fresh weight and 7.267 g root dry weight for ‘Fabris RZ F1’, along with 301.019 g leaf and 195.685 g stem fresh weight. Erel et al., (2020) found that salinity stress significantly enhanced root growth, while fruit load had a lesser effect, supporting our observation that hybrids generally produce higher fresh biomass. Singh et al., (2021) also reported high leaf fresh (10.60 g) and dry weight (2.21 g) in ‘Bachata RZ F1’.
       
These findings underscore the importance of genetic improvement for enhancing biomass, root development and productivity. While hybrids excel in fresh biomass, standard cultivars offer higher dry weight, suggesting advantages in tissue density and structural integrity. This balance between productivity and resilience is crucial for sustainable agriculture in both high-input and organic systems. Moreover, enhanced root traits in hybrids can contribute to food security through improved nutrient uptake and stress tolerance.
       
Statistically significant differences (P≤0.05) were observed between standard and hybrid Capsicum annuum L. cultivars in yield (g/plant), number of fruits per plant, fruit fresh weight and fruit dry weight (Fig 4, Table 4). Hybrid cultivars showed higher yield (918.74 g/plant), fruit fresh weight (66.89 g) and fruit dry weight (5.42 g), while standard cultivars had a higher average fruit number per plant (27.24). These results reflect genetic breeding efforts to enhance productivity traits in hybrids, whereas standard varieties favor fruit quantity over size.




       
A significant feature × cultivar interaction (P≤0.05) was found for all traits. Among hybrids, ‘Tesla’ had the highest yield (1254.23 g/plant), indicating improved photosynthetic capacity and nutrient use. ‘Dut’ recorded both the highest fruit number (28.83) and fruit fresh weight (98.94 g), showing its genetic potential for combining fruit load and size. ‘Aktör’ had the highest fr uit dry weight (8.71 g), suggesting suitability for processing and storage due to higher dry matter.
       
These findings highlight the role of breeding in improving yield and biomass. Hybrids offer clear advantages for high-input systems, while standard cultivars, with more fruits per plant, may better suit organic systems emphasizing adaptability and disease resistance.The results of this study align with previous findings. Koner et al., (2020) reported the highest number of fruits per plant as 11.76 units and the maximum yield as 854.69 g/plant in bell pepper. Hassan et al., (2021) found that the ‘Lady F1’ bell pepper variety exhibited the highest average fruit weight (132.9 g) and number of fruits per plant (41.8 units/plant). Pérez et al. (2022) observed maximum values for fruit weight (178.7 g), yield per plant (1922.2 g) and number of fruits per plant (11.8 units/plant). Reyes-Pérez et al. (2023) reported a range of 11.9-18.7 fruits per plant and a yield of 15.0–24.0 t/ha. Similarly, Ranjitha et al., (2018) reported that the hybrid chilli cultivar ‘Sitara’, when grown under organic conditions with integrated nutrient management (INM), achieved a significantly higher yield, with 1.7 kg per plant and 26.7 t/ha, highlighting the potential of hybrids to enhance productivity in organic systems (Ranjitha et al., 2018).
       
These results suggest that hybrid cultivars provide a yield advantage due to their superior genetic makeup, which allows for larger and heavier fruits. On the other hand, standard cultivars demonstrate an alternative strategy by producing more fruits per plant, which may be beneficial in low-input or organic farming systems. The balance between yield potential, genetic breeding and sustainable farming approaches should be considered when selecting the appropriate cultivar for commercial or organic production.
       
Fruit quality parameters, statistically significant differences (P≤0.05) were observed between standard and hybrid bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars in terms of average fruit weight (g), fruit length (mm), fruit diameter (mm) and fruit flesh thickness (mm) (Table 5). Hybrid cultivars exhibited superior performance compared to standard cultivars, with values of 74.52 g for average fruit weight, 73.60 mm for fruit length, 60.94 mm for fruit diameter and 3.74 mm for fruit flesh thickness. This finding suggests that hybrid cultivars have been genetically improved to produce larger and fleshier fruits. Increased fruit weight and flesh thickness enhance marketability in commercial production, while also improving durability and shelf life, making them more suitable for long-distance transport and storage.


       
A significant feature × cultivar interaction (P≤0.05) was observed for all measured fruit quality parameters (Table 5).  Among the hybrid cultivars, the ‘Aktör ’ cultivar exhibited the highest values, with an average fruit weight of 133.50 g, fruit length of 82.35 mm, fruit diameter of 78.94 mm and fruit flesh thickness of 4.86 mm. These results indicate that hybrid varieties offer significant advantages in commercial agriculture, as larger and thicker-fleshed fruits are more desirable for processed products and export markets.
       
The findings of this study align with previous research. Kaymak et al., (2020) reported that the average fruit weight of the ‘Kandil’ variety ranged from 23.70 to 33.57 g. Similarly, Genç (2019) noted that the ‘BT-İstek ’ cultivar exhibited fruit lengths ranging from 52.48 mm to 74.76 mm and fruit diameters from 12.08 mm to 36.66 mm. Ozgen et al. (2022) reported that hybrid bell pepper varieties had fruit diameters ranging from 47.31 mm to 55.86 mm, while Awuku et al., (2023) documented fruit lengths of 5.0-6.6 cm and diameters of 1.7-2.3 cm. These results confirm that hybrid varieties tend to produce larger, fuller fruits that are well-suited for commercial cultivation.
       
Moreover, significant variability in fruit flesh thickness was observed among different varieties. Yalap (2020); Muhammad et al., (2021); Nkansah et al., (2022); Rubio et al., (2023) and Gülcan (2020b) reported that fruit flesh thickness ranged from 2.0 mm to 62.8 mm, depending on the variety. Elizondo-Cabalceta et al. (2021) found fruit widths of 6.85-9.28 cm, fruit lengths of 7.78-13.17 cm and fruit wall thicknesses of 4.84-6.31 mm. Additionally, Kayak et al., (2022) reported fruit flesh thickness values ranging from 2.04 mm to 2.89 mm. These differences indicate that although some standard varieties have thinner flesh, they may compensate by producing a higher number of fruits, which could be advantageous in organic farming systems.
       
Statistically significant differences (P≤0.05) were found between standard and hybrid Capsicum annuum L. cultivars in water-soluble solids (WSDM), pH, titratable acidity (TA) and electrical conductivity (EC) (Table 6). Hybrids had higher WSDM (5.28%) and TA (0.09%), indicating a sweeter and more aromatic flavor. In contrast, standard cultivars showed higher pH (5.47) and EC (4.59 mS/cm), suggesting a more neutral taste and greater mineral content. These differences suggest that hybrids are more appealing in terms of flavor, while standard cultivars may offer better nutritional value and durability. Such traits are important for selecting cultivars based on market preferences and intended use.


       
A significant cultivar × feature interaction (P≤0.05) was observed for WSDM, pH, TA and EC (Table 6), showing that chemical quality depends on both genetics and growing conditions. The hybrid ‘Dut’ had the highest WSDM (7.46%), indicating higher sugar and organic content, ideal for fresh or processed use. The standard ‘BT Dik’ showed the highest pH (5.77), suggesting a milder, less acidic flavor, which may appeal to certain markets. The standard ‘BT Doru’ had the highest EC (5.84 mS/cm), pointing to greater mineral content and nutritional value, as well as better adaptation to soil conditions. In summary, hybrids like ‘Dut’ offer superior flavor and aroma, while standard cultivars such as ‘BT Dik’ and ‘BT Doru’ provide advantages in pH balance and nutrient density. These traits can guide cultivar selection based on consumer preferences and end use. The results of this study are consistent with findings from previous research. Balcı (2019) and Tekeli (2010) reported WSDM values ranging from 5.74% to 6.04% and pH values between 5.32 and 6.19 in large-fruited bell pepper cultivars such as ‘Doğanay’ and ‘Flamenco RZ F1’. Similarly, Rubio et al., (2023) and Aminifard et al., (2016) found pH values ranging from 5.09 to 5.17, while Lucien et al., (2019) observed WSDM values between 6.25% and 7.51% for the ‘Yolo Wonder’ variety. Keser (2021) reported WSDM values of 5.20% to 7.30% for the ‘Altan F1’ variety in both native and hybrid peppers.
       
Flores-Velazquez et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of TA in determining fruit taste, noting that fruits with higher citric acid content tend to have better taste quality. They reported TA values between 0.47% and 0.67% and EC values ranging from 1.38 to 1.53 dS/m. The higher TA values observed in their study compared to those in the present study may be attributed to their use of California Wonder-type varieties.

This study demonstrated that hybrid bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars exhibit significant advantages in organic farming systems in terms of yield and fruit quality. The findings indicate that hybrid cultivars, particularly ‘Tesla’ and ‘Aktör,’ outperformed standard open-pollinated cultivars in key agronomic traits such as total yield, fruit size and fruit weight. These results suggest that incorporating hybrid cultivars into organic production systems may help overcome the common yield limitations associated with organic agriculture while maintaining high fruit quality. Additionally, hybrid cultivars showed higher levels of water-soluble solids dry matter (WSDM) and titratable acidity (TA), which may enhance fruit flavor and consumer appeal. In contrast, standard cultivars exhibited higher pH and electrical conductivity (EC) values, suggesting a higher mineral content and potentially greater nutritional value. These findings emphasize the need to consider both agronomic performance and market preferences when selecting bell pepper cultivars for organic farming. The study highlights the potential of hybrid bell pepper cultivars to improve productivity and fruit quality in organic agricultural systems. However, further research is needed to assess the long-term effects of hybrid cultivars on soil health, pest resistance and ecological sustainability. Future breeding efforts should focus on developing hybrids that maintain high yield potential while improving adaptability to organic conditions.

This study was prepared based on some data from Kaan Çankaya’s master’s thesis titled “Can hybrid varieties be adapted to organic farming for sustainability? a research on bell pepper (Capsicum annum L.)”.

All authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.