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Substitutional Effect of Molecular Phosphorus with Nano Particle on the Performance of Black Gram (Vigna mungo L.)

R
Rosna Ann Varghese1
P
Partha Sarathi Patra1,*
B
Bratati Kanjilal1
A
Arju Sahid Ahmed1
A
Akramul Hoque1
A
Ashutosh Sarkar2
1Department of Agronomy, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar-736 165, West Bengal, India.
2Department of Agricultural Economics, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavid- yalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar-736 165, West Bengal, India.

  • Submitted22-09-2025|

  • Accepted11-10-2025|

  • First Online 31-10-2025|

  • doi 10.18805/LR-5575

ABSTRACT

Background: Black gram (Vigna mungo L.), a vital pulse crop in India, accounts for about 10% of total pulse production. Phosphorus is essential for legume growth, but its use efficiency is low in acidic soils due to fixation. Nano-phosphorus offers a potential alternative by releasing phosphorus gradually, improving uptake efficiency.

Methods: A field experiment was conducted using randomized block design with 8 treatments and 3 replications to evaluate black gram response to nano-phosphorus substitutions. Treatments included combinations of recommended dose of phosphorus (RDP) through single super phosphate (SSP) and foliar sprays (FS) of nano DAP or nano phosphorus at 15 days after sowing (DAS) and flowering.

Result:  Results showed that 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 significantly improved pod number (48.67), pod length (5.31 cm), seeds pod-1 (7.33), seed index (5.43 g) and yielded 20.13% and 55.44% higher seed yield than 100% SSP and control, respectively. This treatment also recorded the highest phosphorus uptake (13.38 kg ha-1) and net return (₹ 37,507.46 ha-1) with a return per rupee investment of 1.09. The study suggests that substituting up to 75% of molecular phosphorus with nano DAP enhances growth, yield and profitability of black gram in the terai region when supplemented with 20 kg N and 40 kg K ha-1. This approach offers a sustainable fertilization strategy for post-kharif black gram cultivation. The study was limited to a single location, which may restrict the generalization of results across varying soil and climatic conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Pulses, often dubbed as “poor man’s meat,” are vital to ensuring food and nutritional security, particularly in vegetarian-dominated countries like India. Among pulses, black gram (Vigna mungo L.) ranks as the third most important pulse crop in India, contributing around 10% to national pulse production (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2021). It plays a crucial role in rice-based cropping systems, especially during post-kharif seasons utilizing residual soil moisture. In West Bengal, despite surpluses in rice, vegetables and potatoes, pulse cultivation remains neglected, creating a demand-supply gap. Black gram offers an excellent opportunity to bridge this gap, particularly in rainfed and rice-fallow areas, due to its short duration (90-100 days), low water requirement and adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions (Kumar et al., 2015). Black gram contributes to soil fertility enhancement by converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants (Choudhary et al., 2025).
       
Phosphorus (P) is the second most essential macronu- trient after nitrogen and is particularly crucial for legumes, given its role in root development, nodule formation and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) (Rotaru and Sinclair, 2009; Yadav et al., 2017). The productivity of pulses mainly depends on proper management of nutrients particularly phosphorus and sulphur (Phogat et al., 2021).
       
However, phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) in Indian agriculture is critically low (18-20%), primarily due to fixation in acidic soils, leaching and microbial immobilization (Subramanian et al., 2015; Jamir et al., 2025). Excessive use of chemical P fertilizers like single super phosphate (SSP) not only increases production costs but also leads to environmental degradation, such as eutrophication and nutrient imbalance.
       
In this context, nano-fertilizers have emerged as a promising innovation to enhance nutrient use efficiency. Nano-scale phosphorus formulations like nano DAP and phosphorus nanoparticles offer controlled nutrient release, greater solubility and better foliar absorption, improving plant uptake while minimizing environmental losses (Rai et al., 2012; Chhipa, 2017). Their high surface area and small particle size allow better penetration into plant tissues and soil systems (Siddiqi and Husen, 2017). Foliar application of nano-phosphorus is especially relevant for short-duration crops like black gram, where timely nutrient availability is crucial for maximizing yield potential (Ganapathy et al., 2008).
       
Despite the recognized advantages of nano fertilizers, there is limited empirical evidence on their comparative efficacy over conventional phosphorus sources in pulse crops, particularly black gram. Most previous studies have focused on cereal crops or examined nano fertilizers in isolation rather than in combination with reduced rates of conventional fertilizers. There is also a lack of data on phosphorus uptake, economic viability and yield performance of black gram in Eastern India’s acidic soils. Keeping the above facts in minds present study was conducted during the post-kharif season of 2023 and 2024 at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya with the objectives i) to assess the extent of substitution of single super phosphate with phosphorus nano fertilizers in terms of growth attributes, yield attributes and yield of black gram, (ii) to study the comparative performance of various phosphorus nano fertilizers over single super phosphate in terms of yield attributes and yield of black gram, (iii) to evaluate the variation in phosphorus uptake among different phosphatic fertilizer sources and (iv) to analyse the economics of black gram cultivation as influenced by various phosphorus nano fertilizers and single super phosphate.
       
This study aims to contribute toward sustainable intensification of pulse production in India. By validating nano phosphorus as a substitute for molecular phosphorus, it seeks to reduce chemical input dependence, enhance phosphorus use efficiency and improve profitability for smallholders. Adoption of nano fertilizers could help India meet its growing pulse demand, reduce fertilizer imports and promote environmentally sound farming practices, paving the way for resilient and sustainable agriculture in resource-constrained ecosystems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Site of experimentation
 
The study was carried out at the instructional farm of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya (UBKV), Pundibari, Cooch Behar. Geographically, UBKV is situated in the Cooch Behar district of West Bengal at 26o19'86"N latitude and 89o23'59"E longitude. It is 43 m above mean sea level. The area has sandy loam soil and is located in West Bengal’s Terai agro climatic zone. The terai zone supports 9.7% of the state’s popula- tion and occupies roughly 13.5% of the state’s total land.
 
Experimental soil
 
Before sowing, soil samples were taken from the experimental plot at a depth of 15 cm in order to examine the physico-chemical characteristics of soil in a laboratory. Samples were air-dried, ground and then passed through a 2 mm sieve before being stored in polythene bags for examination. The soil had a sandy loam composition, friable with good drainage. The reports of initial soil fertility along with the techniques used are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Initial chemical properties of experimental soil.


 
Experimental details
 
Initially the field was ploughed thoroughly using a tractor drawn cultivator that cleared crop residues, deep rooted weeds and pulverized the soil. This was followed by a rotavator that loosened the soil and aided in preparation of seed bed. Following the tillage process, the experimen-tation plot was set up according to the plan and design. The statistical design adopted is Randomized Block Design with eight treatments, replicated three times. Treatments encompasses of T1: 100% RDP through SSP; T2: 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T3: 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 7.5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T4: 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 10 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T5: 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T6: 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 3 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T7: 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 4 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T8: control (No phosphorus).
       
Black gram variety WBU-109 (Sulata) was used in the experiment and sown at a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. Plot size of 5 m x 6 m was retained in the experiment. To get the best plant populations, a seed rate of 20 kg ha-1 was employed. Data were recorded on agronomic parameters like plant height, root length, root volume, number of nodules plant-1, dry matter accumulation (g m-2) at 15 days’ interval starting from 30 DAS upto harvest. Data on yield characteristics specifically number of pods plant-1, pod length, number of seeds pod-1 and seed index was documented at the time of maturity. Seed yield and stover yield was recorded in an area of one square meter and transformed to the kg ha-1. Data on phosphorus content in seed and stover were analysed using Vanado-molybdate yellow colour method (Jackson, 1973) and multiplied by dry matter in order to find out uptake. Lastly the different treatments were evaluated for their gross return, net return and returns per rupee investment.

Statistical analysis
 
Data collected from field and laboratory were subjected to statistical analysis using statistical software SPSS, version 26. All the data were analyzed by analysis of variance and the significance of difference between means was then estimated using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% level of significance.  

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect on growth attributes
 
Application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + foliar spray of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) recorded significantly tallest plant (27.93 cm, 44.24 cm, 55.05 cm and 53.82 cm at 30 DAS, 45 DAS, 60 DAS and at harvest respectively), developed lengthy and voluminous root system and produced maximum dry matter (19.80, 127.60 and 407 g m-2 at 30, 45 DAS and at harvest respectively) which was statistically at par with the application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5). Application of 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 7.5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T3), 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 10 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T4) and 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 3 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T6) and 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 4 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T7) were found statistically at par with each other in terms of plant height, root length, root volume and dry matter accumulation. Treatment having without phosphorus recorded significantly lowest values of growth attributes (Table 2).

Table 2: Growth attributes of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle at different growth stages (pooled data over the years).


  
Yield attributes and yield
 
Application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate along with foliar spray (FS) of nano DAP @ @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) exerted a remarkable influence on yield attributes of black gram (Table 3). This treatment recorded the highest number of pods plant-1 (48.67), longest pod length (5.31 cm), maximum seeds pod-1 (7.33), greater seed index (5.43 g) and superior harvest index (30.31%), which cumulatively resulted in the highest seed yield (965 kg ha-1) and stover yield (2220 kg ha-1). The next best performance was observed with the application of 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5).

Table 3: Yield attributes of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle at different growth stages (pooled data over the years).


       
Overall, all treatments involving nano phosphorus particles outperformed conventional phosphorus fertilization in enhancing yield attributes and seed yield. Notably, the treatment with 100% phosphorus through SSP (T1) produced 3.26, 5.02, 7.65, 10.14, 13.01 and 20.13% lower seed yield compared to T7, T4, T6, T3, T5 and T2, respectively. Among the two nano phosphorus sources, nano DAP emerged as more effective than nano phosphorus, highlighting its superior role in boosting productivity.
 
Phosphorus content and uptake
 
Results on phosphorus content and uptake by black gram revealed that there was great variation in phosphorus contents and uptake by black gram due to substitution of molecular phosphorus through nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle (Fig 1 and 2). Highest phosphorus content and uptake in seed (0.52% and 4.98 kg ha-1) and stover (0.38% and 8.41 kg ha-1) was noted under T2 (application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering) followed by application 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering.

Fig 1: Phosphorus content in seed and stover of black gram as inflienced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.



Fig 2: Phosphorus uptake in seed and stover of black gram as inflienced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.



Economics of production system
 
Economics of the black gram production revealed that highest gross return of ₹ 72001 ha-1 was realized whenever 75% recommended dose of phosphorus is substituted through nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) which was followed by substitution of 75% RDP through foliar application nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5) with the gross return to the tune of ₹ 67923 ha-1.
       
Highest net return to the tune of ₹ 37507 ha-1 was realized with 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) followed by application of 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (₹ 5029 ha-1). Lowest net return of ₹ 18211 ha-1 was found under T8 where no phosphorus was given (Fig 3). 

Fig 3: Gross and net return of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nanoparticle.


       
Highest returns per rupee investment of 1.09 was experienced with 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) while surprisingly lowest returns per rupee investment of 0.62 was found under T8 (Fig 4).

Fig 4: Returns per rupee investment of black gram as influenced by Nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.


 
Effect on growth attributes
 
Substitution of 25% molecular phosphorus with nano DAP or phosphorus nanoparticles markedly improved plant height and root growth over sole application of single super phosphate, owing to enhanced phosphorus availability that stimulates cell division, elongation and auxin-mediated root proliferation. Nano DAP outperformed phosphorus nanoparticles due to its dual supply of phosphorus and nano-scale nitrogen, promoting greater vegetative vigour and dry matter accumulation. Treatments without phosphorus showed the poorest growth, confirming phosphorus’s crucial role in root and shoot development. Similar findings were reported by Prajapati et al., (2023) and Kanjilal et al., (2023), who observed stunted growth under phosphorus deficiency. Enhanced biomass with nano sources aligns with earlier studies (Priya et al., 2015; Choudhary et al., 2018; Yomso et al., 2023) highlighting the role of efficient nutrient supply in boosting plant growth.
 
Effect on yield attributes and seed yield
 
The maximum number of pods plant-1 and longer pods under nano DAP application resulted from improved phosphorus and nitrogen availability during flowering and fruiting, enhancing photosynthesis and nutrient utilization efficiency (Priya et al., 2015; Choudhary et al., 2018; Yomso et al., 2023). The superior rooting system ensured a steady nutrient supply, contributing to better pod development, as also observed by Choudhary et al., (2018) and Kanjilal et al., (2023). Enhanced phosphorus absorption and translocation due to the high reactivity of nano DAP increased CO‚  fixation and photosynthate accumulation, leading to higher seed yield. In contrast, phosphorus omission caused poor root growth and lower photosynthesis, reducing yield. Similar yield improvements with nano fertilizers were reported by Tarafdar et al., (2014), Shang et al., (2019), Astaneh et al., (2021), Meena et al., (2021) and Raj et al., (2021). The increased stover yield under nano phosphorus treatments was attributed to better nutrient uptake and translocation, corroborating findings by Kanjilal et al., (2023) and Poudel et al., (2023).
       
The observed improvements in yield attributes and productivity with nano DAP and nano phosphorus application highlight their potential as efficient nutrient management strategies for sustainable agriculture. By enhancing nutrient use efficiency and reducing reliance on conventional fertilizers, these nano-based interventions can minimize phosphorus losses through fixation and runoff, mitigating environmental impacts while maintaining high productivity. From a policy perspective, integrating nano fertilizers into national nutrient management programs can contribute to achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).
 
Phosphorus content and uptake
 
Higher phosphorus content might be due to better availability of phosphorus for root acquisition with the integrated use of molecular phosphorus and nano DAP (Hagab et al., 2018; Nasrallah et al., 2022). More uptake of phosphorus was largely due to higher availability and concurrently maximum seed yield. Result of the present investigation is in conformity with Mala et al., (2016); Kah et al., (2018); Mcknight et al. (2020) and Sathyanarayana et al., (2021). Lowest uptake of phosphorus (1.82 kg ha-1) was found in the absolute control plot (T8). 
       
Higher stover uptake may be due better phosphorus content as well as maximum biomass dry matter to the corresponding treatments.
 
Economics of black gram production
 
Adoption and rejection of any technology ultimately depends on its economic feasibility. Increased gross returns are primarily the result of higher yields obtained under specific treatments. Higher net return with the substitution of 25% phosphorus through foliar application nano DAP is due to proportionately higher gross return over total cost of cultivation. Kanjilal et al., (2023) reported highest net return and B:C ratio with the foliar application of nano-phosphorus at @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS in green gram.  Kumar et al., (2023) reported higher gross return, net return and B: C ratio with the application phosphorus nano particle @ 6 ml L-1 in soybean.

CONCLUSION

Substitution of 25% recommended dose of phosphorus through foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering was found best in terms of yield attributes and yield of black gram. On the economical view point, application of 75% RDP through SSP + foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering was found most profitable. Hence farmers of terai region can grow black gram profitably during post-kharif season (middle of September to first week of December) with the application of 75% RDP (30 kg P2O5) through SSP + foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering along with 20 kg nitrogen and 40 kg potassium ha-1.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are highly grateful to the Director of Research, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal, India for extending all sorts of support for the conduct of the experiment.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Full Research Article

    Substitutional Effect of Molecular Phosphorus with Nano Particle on the Performance of Black Gram (Vigna mungo L.)

    R
    Rosna Ann Varghese1
    P
    Partha Sarathi Patra1,*
    B
    Bratati Kanjilal1
    A
    Arju Sahid Ahmed1
    A
    Akramul Hoque1
    A
    Ashutosh Sarkar2
    1Department of Agronomy, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar-736 165, West Bengal, India.
    2Department of Agricultural Economics, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavid- yalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar-736 165, West Bengal, India.

    • Submitted22-09-2025|

    • Accepted11-10-2025|

    • First Online 31-10-2025|

    • doi 10.18805/LR-5575

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Black gram (Vigna mungo L.), a vital pulse crop in India, accounts for about 10% of total pulse production. Phosphorus is essential for legume growth, but its use efficiency is low in acidic soils due to fixation. Nano-phosphorus offers a potential alternative by releasing phosphorus gradually, improving uptake efficiency.

    Methods: A field experiment was conducted using randomized block design with 8 treatments and 3 replications to evaluate black gram response to nano-phosphorus substitutions. Treatments included combinations of recommended dose of phosphorus (RDP) through single super phosphate (SSP) and foliar sprays (FS) of nano DAP or nano phosphorus at 15 days after sowing (DAS) and flowering.

    Result:  Results showed that 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 significantly improved pod number (48.67), pod length (5.31 cm), seeds pod-1 (7.33), seed index (5.43 g) and yielded 20.13% and 55.44% higher seed yield than 100% SSP and control, respectively. This treatment also recorded the highest phosphorus uptake (13.38 kg ha-1) and net return (₹ 37,507.46 ha-1) with a return per rupee investment of 1.09. The study suggests that substituting up to 75% of molecular phosphorus with nano DAP enhances growth, yield and profitability of black gram in the terai region when supplemented with 20 kg N and 40 kg K ha-1. This approach offers a sustainable fertilization strategy for post-kharif black gram cultivation. The study was limited to a single location, which may restrict the generalization of results across varying soil and climatic conditions.

    INTRODUCTION

    Pulses, often dubbed as “poor man’s meat,” are vital to ensuring food and nutritional security, particularly in vegetarian-dominated countries like India. Among pulses, black gram (Vigna mungo L.) ranks as the third most important pulse crop in India, contributing around 10% to national pulse production (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2021). It plays a crucial role in rice-based cropping systems, especially during post-kharif seasons utilizing residual soil moisture. In West Bengal, despite surpluses in rice, vegetables and potatoes, pulse cultivation remains neglected, creating a demand-supply gap. Black gram offers an excellent opportunity to bridge this gap, particularly in rainfed and rice-fallow areas, due to its short duration (90-100 days), low water requirement and adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions (Kumar et al., 2015). Black gram contributes to soil fertility enhancement by converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants (Choudhary et al., 2025).
           
    Phosphorus (P) is the second most essential macronu- trient after nitrogen and is particularly crucial for legumes, given its role in root development, nodule formation and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) (Rotaru and Sinclair, 2009; Yadav et al., 2017). The productivity of pulses mainly depends on proper management of nutrients particularly phosphorus and sulphur (Phogat et al., 2021).
           
    However, phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) in Indian agriculture is critically low (18-20%), primarily due to fixation in acidic soils, leaching and microbial immobilization (Subramanian et al., 2015; Jamir et al., 2025). Excessive use of chemical P fertilizers like single super phosphate (SSP) not only increases production costs but also leads to environmental degradation, such as eutrophication and nutrient imbalance.
           
    In this context, nano-fertilizers have emerged as a promising innovation to enhance nutrient use efficiency. Nano-scale phosphorus formulations like nano DAP and phosphorus nanoparticles offer controlled nutrient release, greater solubility and better foliar absorption, improving plant uptake while minimizing environmental losses (Rai et al., 2012; Chhipa, 2017). Their high surface area and small particle size allow better penetration into plant tissues and soil systems (Siddiqi and Husen, 2017). Foliar application of nano-phosphorus is especially relevant for short-duration crops like black gram, where timely nutrient availability is crucial for maximizing yield potential (Ganapathy et al., 2008).
           
    Despite the recognized advantages of nano fertilizers, there is limited empirical evidence on their comparative efficacy over conventional phosphorus sources in pulse crops, particularly black gram. Most previous studies have focused on cereal crops or examined nano fertilizers in isolation rather than in combination with reduced rates of conventional fertilizers. There is also a lack of data on phosphorus uptake, economic viability and yield performance of black gram in Eastern India’s acidic soils. Keeping the above facts in minds present study was conducted during the post-kharif season of 2023 and 2024 at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya with the objectives i) to assess the extent of substitution of single super phosphate with phosphorus nano fertilizers in terms of growth attributes, yield attributes and yield of black gram, (ii) to study the comparative performance of various phosphorus nano fertilizers over single super phosphate in terms of yield attributes and yield of black gram, (iii) to evaluate the variation in phosphorus uptake among different phosphatic fertilizer sources and (iv) to analyse the economics of black gram cultivation as influenced by various phosphorus nano fertilizers and single super phosphate.
           
    This study aims to contribute toward sustainable intensification of pulse production in India. By validating nano phosphorus as a substitute for molecular phosphorus, it seeks to reduce chemical input dependence, enhance phosphorus use efficiency and improve profitability for smallholders. Adoption of nano fertilizers could help India meet its growing pulse demand, reduce fertilizer imports and promote environmentally sound farming practices, paving the way for resilient and sustainable agriculture in resource-constrained ecosystems.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Site of experimentation
     
    The study was carried out at the instructional farm of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya (UBKV), Pundibari, Cooch Behar. Geographically, UBKV is situated in the Cooch Behar district of West Bengal at 26o19'86"N latitude and 89o23'59"E longitude. It is 43 m above mean sea level. The area has sandy loam soil and is located in West Bengal’s Terai agro climatic zone. The terai zone supports 9.7% of the state’s popula- tion and occupies roughly 13.5% of the state’s total land.
     
    Experimental soil
     
    Before sowing, soil samples were taken from the experimental plot at a depth of 15 cm in order to examine the physico-chemical characteristics of soil in a laboratory. Samples were air-dried, ground and then passed through a 2 mm sieve before being stored in polythene bags for examination. The soil had a sandy loam composition, friable with good drainage. The reports of initial soil fertility along with the techniques used are given in Table 1.

    Table 1: Initial chemical properties of experimental soil.


     
    Experimental details
     
    Initially the field was ploughed thoroughly using a tractor drawn cultivator that cleared crop residues, deep rooted weeds and pulverized the soil. This was followed by a rotavator that loosened the soil and aided in preparation of seed bed. Following the tillage process, the experimen-tation plot was set up according to the plan and design. The statistical design adopted is Randomized Block Design with eight treatments, replicated three times. Treatments encompasses of T1: 100% RDP through SSP; T2: 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T3: 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 7.5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T4: 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 10 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T5: 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T6: 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 3 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T7: 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 4 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering; T8: control (No phosphorus).
           
    Black gram variety WBU-109 (Sulata) was used in the experiment and sown at a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. Plot size of 5 m x 6 m was retained in the experiment. To get the best plant populations, a seed rate of 20 kg ha-1 was employed. Data were recorded on agronomic parameters like plant height, root length, root volume, number of nodules plant-1, dry matter accumulation (g m-2) at 15 days’ interval starting from 30 DAS upto harvest. Data on yield characteristics specifically number of pods plant-1, pod length, number of seeds pod-1 and seed index was documented at the time of maturity. Seed yield and stover yield was recorded in an area of one square meter and transformed to the kg ha-1. Data on phosphorus content in seed and stover were analysed using Vanado-molybdate yellow colour method (Jackson, 1973) and multiplied by dry matter in order to find out uptake. Lastly the different treatments were evaluated for their gross return, net return and returns per rupee investment.

    Statistical analysis
     
    Data collected from field and laboratory were subjected to statistical analysis using statistical software SPSS, version 26. All the data were analyzed by analysis of variance and the significance of difference between means was then estimated using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% level of significance.  

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Effect on growth attributes
     
    Application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + foliar spray of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) recorded significantly tallest plant (27.93 cm, 44.24 cm, 55.05 cm and 53.82 cm at 30 DAS, 45 DAS, 60 DAS and at harvest respectively), developed lengthy and voluminous root system and produced maximum dry matter (19.80, 127.60 and 407 g m-2 at 30, 45 DAS and at harvest respectively) which was statistically at par with the application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5). Application of 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 7.5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T3), 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano DAP @ 10 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T4) and 50% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 3 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T6) and 25% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 4 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T7) were found statistically at par with each other in terms of plant height, root length, root volume and dry matter accumulation. Treatment having without phosphorus recorded significantly lowest values of growth attributes (Table 2).

    Table 2: Growth attributes of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle at different growth stages (pooled data over the years).


      
    Yield attributes and yield
     
    Application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate along with foliar spray (FS) of nano DAP @ @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) exerted a remarkable influence on yield attributes of black gram (Table 3). This treatment recorded the highest number of pods plant-1 (48.67), longest pod length (5.31 cm), maximum seeds pod-1 (7.33), greater seed index (5.43 g) and superior harvest index (30.31%), which cumulatively resulted in the highest seed yield (965 kg ha-1) and stover yield (2220 kg ha-1). The next best performance was observed with the application of 75% RDP through SSP + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5).

    Table 3: Yield attributes of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle at different growth stages (pooled data over the years).


           
    Overall, all treatments involving nano phosphorus particles outperformed conventional phosphorus fertilization in enhancing yield attributes and seed yield. Notably, the treatment with 100% phosphorus through SSP (T1) produced 3.26, 5.02, 7.65, 10.14, 13.01 and 20.13% lower seed yield compared to T7, T4, T6, T3, T5 and T2, respectively. Among the two nano phosphorus sources, nano DAP emerged as more effective than nano phosphorus, highlighting its superior role in boosting productivity.
     
    Phosphorus content and uptake
     
    Results on phosphorus content and uptake by black gram revealed that there was great variation in phosphorus contents and uptake by black gram due to substitution of molecular phosphorus through nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle (Fig 1 and 2). Highest phosphorus content and uptake in seed (0.52% and 4.98 kg ha-1) and stover (0.38% and 8.41 kg ha-1) was noted under T2 (application of 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering) followed by application 75% RDP through single super phosphate + FS of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering.

    Fig 1: Phosphorus content in seed and stover of black gram as inflienced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.



    Fig 2: Phosphorus uptake in seed and stover of black gram as inflienced by nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.



    Economics of production system
     
    Economics of the black gram production revealed that highest gross return of ₹ 72001 ha-1 was realized whenever 75% recommended dose of phosphorus is substituted through nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) which was followed by substitution of 75% RDP through foliar application nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T5) with the gross return to the tune of ₹ 67923 ha-1.
           
    Highest net return to the tune of ₹ 37507 ha-1 was realized with 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) followed by application of 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano phosphorus @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (₹ 5029 ha-1). Lowest net return of ₹ 18211 ha-1 was found under T8 where no phosphorus was given (Fig 3). 

    Fig 3: Gross and net return of black gram as influenced by nano DAP and phosphorus nanoparticle.


           
    Highest returns per rupee investment of 1.09 was experienced with 75% RDP through SSP and foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering (T2) while surprisingly lowest returns per rupee investment of 0.62 was found under T8 (Fig 4).

    Fig 4: Returns per rupee investment of black gram as influenced by Nano DAP and phosphorus nano particle.


     
    Effect on growth attributes
     
    Substitution of 25% molecular phosphorus with nano DAP or phosphorus nanoparticles markedly improved plant height and root growth over sole application of single super phosphate, owing to enhanced phosphorus availability that stimulates cell division, elongation and auxin-mediated root proliferation. Nano DAP outperformed phosphorus nanoparticles due to its dual supply of phosphorus and nano-scale nitrogen, promoting greater vegetative vigour and dry matter accumulation. Treatments without phosphorus showed the poorest growth, confirming phosphorus’s crucial role in root and shoot development. Similar findings were reported by Prajapati et al., (2023) and Kanjilal et al., (2023), who observed stunted growth under phosphorus deficiency. Enhanced biomass with nano sources aligns with earlier studies (Priya et al., 2015; Choudhary et al., 2018; Yomso et al., 2023) highlighting the role of efficient nutrient supply in boosting plant growth.
     
    Effect on yield attributes and seed yield
     
    The maximum number of pods plant-1 and longer pods under nano DAP application resulted from improved phosphorus and nitrogen availability during flowering and fruiting, enhancing photosynthesis and nutrient utilization efficiency (Priya et al., 2015; Choudhary et al., 2018; Yomso et al., 2023). The superior rooting system ensured a steady nutrient supply, contributing to better pod development, as also observed by Choudhary et al., (2018) and Kanjilal et al., (2023). Enhanced phosphorus absorption and translocation due to the high reactivity of nano DAP increased CO‚  fixation and photosynthate accumulation, leading to higher seed yield. In contrast, phosphorus omission caused poor root growth and lower photosynthesis, reducing yield. Similar yield improvements with nano fertilizers were reported by Tarafdar et al., (2014), Shang et al., (2019), Astaneh et al., (2021), Meena et al., (2021) and Raj et al., (2021). The increased stover yield under nano phosphorus treatments was attributed to better nutrient uptake and translocation, corroborating findings by Kanjilal et al., (2023) and Poudel et al., (2023).
           
    The observed improvements in yield attributes and productivity with nano DAP and nano phosphorus application highlight their potential as efficient nutrient management strategies for sustainable agriculture. By enhancing nutrient use efficiency and reducing reliance on conventional fertilizers, these nano-based interventions can minimize phosphorus losses through fixation and runoff, mitigating environmental impacts while maintaining high productivity. From a policy perspective, integrating nano fertilizers into national nutrient management programs can contribute to achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).
     
    Phosphorus content and uptake
     
    Higher phosphorus content might be due to better availability of phosphorus for root acquisition with the integrated use of molecular phosphorus and nano DAP (Hagab et al., 2018; Nasrallah et al., 2022). More uptake of phosphorus was largely due to higher availability and concurrently maximum seed yield. Result of the present investigation is in conformity with Mala et al., (2016); Kah et al., (2018); Mcknight et al. (2020) and Sathyanarayana et al., (2021). Lowest uptake of phosphorus (1.82 kg ha-1) was found in the absolute control plot (T8). 
           
    Higher stover uptake may be due better phosphorus content as well as maximum biomass dry matter to the corresponding treatments.
     
    Economics of black gram production
     
    Adoption and rejection of any technology ultimately depends on its economic feasibility. Increased gross returns are primarily the result of higher yields obtained under specific treatments. Higher net return with the substitution of 25% phosphorus through foliar application nano DAP is due to proportionately higher gross return over total cost of cultivation. Kanjilal et al., (2023) reported highest net return and B:C ratio with the foliar application of nano-phosphorus at @ 2 ml L-1 at 15 DAS in green gram.  Kumar et al., (2023) reported higher gross return, net return and B: C ratio with the application phosphorus nano particle @ 6 ml L-1 in soybean.

    CONCLUSION

    Substitution of 25% recommended dose of phosphorus through foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering was found best in terms of yield attributes and yield of black gram. On the economical view point, application of 75% RDP through SSP + foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering was found most profitable. Hence farmers of terai region can grow black gram profitably during post-kharif season (middle of September to first week of December) with the application of 75% RDP (30 kg P2O5) through SSP + foliar application of nano DAP @ 5 ml L-1 at 15 DAS and flowering along with 20 kg nitrogen and 40 kg potassium ha-1.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors are highly grateful to the Director of Research, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal, India for extending all sorts of support for the conduct of the experiment.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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