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Full Research Article

Refractometric Assessment of Immunoglobulin Secretion Dynamics and Nutritive Values of Colostrum and Transitional Milk Across the Periparturient Period in Ardi and Shami Goats

A
A.A. Mohammed1,*
S
S. Al-Suwaiegh1
1Department of Animal and Fish Production, College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, P.O. Box 402, Al-Ahsa 31982, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACT

Background: Colostrum is indispensable for the survival and health of goats’ kids because the maternal immunoglobulins (Igs) are not transferred in utero due to the epitheliochorial placental structure. The current study aimed to explore colostrum physicochemical composition and immunoglobulins secretion dynamics across four weeks pre-term and four days post-term periods in Shami and Ardi goats.

Methods: Six Shami and six Ardi goats were followed for immunoglobulins secretion dynamics in colostrum and milk over the pre-term and post-term periods in addition to hematological profiles (day +1).

Result: The results indicated key differences of all measured parameters between Shami and Ardi colostrum. High values of immunoglobulins, fat, solids not fat, protein and lactose (P<0.001) of colostrum obtained during pre-term period if compared to those of colostrum obtained during post-term period of both Shami and Ardi goats. A sharp decrease in immunoglobulins concentration was observed after day 1 of parturition. Furthermore, Shami colostrum had higher immunoglobulins, fat, solids not fat, protein and lactose values if compared to Ardi colostrum either during pre-term or post-term periods. Shami goats had high hematological values if compared to those of Ardi ones.

INTRODUCTION

Colostrum, the initial mammary secretion following parturition, is recognized as a biological necessity for neonates, serving as a critical bridge between the sterile intrauterine and the external environment (Grodkowska et al., 2023). Its primary function is to provide a concentrated, easily digestible source of energy, vitamins and growth factors to facilitate passive immunity through the transfer of maternal immunoglobulins (Rostoll-Cangiano et al., 2025; Mohammed and Alshaibani, 2025; Mohammed et al., 2025, 2026). This passive transfer is vital for protecting the newborns against prevalent pathogens during the first weeks of life until its own adaptive immune system matures (Albrecht and Arck, 2020). Consequently, the quality, volume and timing of colostrum secretion are fundamental determinants of neonatal health, vitality and subsequent survival across diverse mammalian species (Silva et al., 2024; Alhamd and Mohammed, 2026; Alkhalifah and Mohammed, 2026).
       
In caprine species, the reliance on colostral intake is particularly acute due to their epitheliochorial placental structure, which largely precludes the prenatal transfer of maternal antibodies (Yang et al., 2025). Goats’ kids are therefore born “agammaglobulinemic”, necessitating the rapid absorption of immunoglobulins from colostrum within the first 24 hours of life to achieve adequate passive transfer (Martínez et al., 2020). Failure of passive transfer (FPT) due to insufficient colostrum quantity, poor chemical quality, or delayed intake is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in young neonates (Lichtmannsperger et al., 2023). Furthermore, the specialized composition of caprine colostrum serves as a precise barometer of the dam’s intense metabolic demands and periparturient physiological status (Lu et al., 2016).
       
The Ardi and Shami goat breeds are two of the most prominent breeds in the middle east. They share a high tolerance for harsh and arid environments but they differ significantly in their primary uses and body characters. The indigenous KSA Ardi goat is primarily valued for its resilience and adaptation to desert heat and water scarcity. It is considered a dual-purpose breed for milk and meat production. Ardi goats produce under good management about 0.8 to 1.2 kg of milk/day, with a lactation stage of 150-180 days. They often have a twinning rate of about 1.2 - 1.5 kids per kidding (Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh 2023). The indigenous Syria Shami goat is world-renowned as a premium dairy breed and is frequently used in crossbreeding programs to improve milk and growth traits in other local breeds. Shami goat produces 350-650 kg milk/lactation and a twinning rate of about 1.8-2.0 kids per kidding (Ali et al., 2025).
       
While the critical role of colostrum is well-established for neonates, the influence of gestation length on its immediate secretion dynamics and nutrient profiles remains an area of interest requiring closer scrutiny (Uyama et al., 2022). Normal caprine gestation is approximately 150 days. Genetic and/or environmental factors can lead to premature or delayed kidding (Amaro et al., 2000). Mammary gland maturation and the concentration of immunoglobulins in colostrum are highly synchronized with hormonal shifts and the precise timing of delivery (Kayatani et al., 2022). It is hypothesized that an unnaturally early or late parturition may disrupt these complex preparatory stages (Gáspárdy et al., 2024). Understanding these effects is essential, as altered colostrum quality due to timing of delivery may predispose kids to FPT and nutritional deficits regardless of management system (Westhoff et al., 2024). Therefore, the current study objectives were to conduct a comparative analysis of colostrum derived from Ardi and Shami goats during four weeks pre-term and four days post-term periods. Specifically, we aimed to compare the detailed chemical composition, focusing on immunoglobulins concentrations (Brix%), total solids, protein, fat and lactose across these two periods. The findings might provide crucial insights into how parturition timing modulates colostrum biosynthesis and offer practical guidance for management strategies aimed at mitigating the risks associated with non-term kidding in commercial goat production systems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design and ethical approval
 
The study was designed to compare between colostrum/transitional milk quality obtained during four weeks pre-term (-4 weeks) and four days post-term (+4 days) of Shami and Ardi goats of third parity and twin birth (Fig 1). The study protocol was approved by the ethical committee of King Faisal University [KFU-REC-2026-JAN-EA263]. The present experiment was carried out from October to March 2026 in the department of animal and fish production of KFU. Twelve pregnant goats (6 Ardi goats and 6 Shami) were used for conducting the study for four weeks before parturition and four days after parturition (Fig 1). The colostrum and transitional milk samples were collected weekly before parturition (5 ml for week -4 to -2 and 25ml for week -1) and daily (25 ml) after parturition. The collected samples were monitored for brix refractometer (%), physicochemical composition analysis, in addition to blood profiles.

Fig 1: Experimental design, timing of colostrum collection and chemical analysis.


 
Colostrum and milk collection
 
To monitor pregnant does, records and ultrasonography methods were used to predict the expected delivery date and assess fetal status. Colostrum was collected at a standardized time point before delivery (week-4, week-3, week-2 and week -1) and after delivery (day +1, day +2, day +3 and day +4). Samples were collected using sterile technique via hand milking into sterile collection containers.
 
Colostrum and milk analyses using milk tester and brix refractometer
 
The colostrum samples were analyzed using milk analyzer (Milkotronic Ltd., Bulgaria). Twenty millimeters of samples were used for analyses of SNF, protein, fat, lactose and minerals. The digital Brix refractometer (SOONDA Official Store) was used to measure immunoglobulins values (refractometer brix %). The refractometer was cleaned and calibrated with purified water (Caisson, USA) before sample measurement. The refractometer was adjusted until the reading was 0.0% Brix. Colostrum samples were mixed thoroughly to ensure homogeneity before analysis. A small, representative aliquot of the colostrum (2-3 drops) was drawn using a disposable pipette and placed into the clean prism surface of the refractometer. The reading was taken after allowing 15-30 seconds for temperature equilibration and the digital brix value was recorded.
 
Monitoring colostrum and milk pH
 
Colostrum and milk pH values were monitored using portable pH meter (Model: PH-107, China).
 
Blood and plasma samples’ collection and analyses
 
Blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture into vacuum tubes containing EDTA for hematology and plasma separation. The collected blood samples were centrifuged at 2,000 g for 10 minutes at 4°C to collect plasma samples. The blood samples were used for determination of hematocrit and hemoglobin values (Drabkin colorimetric, diamond diagnostic). Plasma concentrations of total protein, glucose, triglycerides and HDL were determined by spectrophotometer (Unico, USA) using commercial test kits: glucose by the enzymatic colorimetric method (Beach and Turner, 1958), total protein by biuret reagent (Gornall et al., 1949) and triglycerides (Fossati and Prencipe, 1982) and HDL (Lopes-Virella et al., 1977).
 
Data statistical analysis
 
The brix values (%) for pre-term and post-term colostrum and transitional milk of Shami and Ardi goats were recorded and compared. In addition, the physicochemical composition values including fat, SNF, protein, lactose, minerals, density and freezing point for pre-term and post-term colostrum of Shami and Ardi goats were recorded and compared. The data were subjected to statistical analysis of ANOVA repeated measures for breed (Shami vs. Ardi.) and period (pre-term vs. post-term) using the general linear models of SPSS (version 27.0). In addition, the pH and blood data were statistically analyzed using T-test procedure to compare the means of two groups. Comparison between the two groups considered statistically significant at p<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Immunoglobulins secretion dynamics
 
The dynamics of mammary immunoglobulins secretion, as measured by refractometry, across the periparturient period is presented in Table (1) and Fig (2). During the pre-parturient phase (week -4 to week -1), immunoglobulins concentrations remained uniformly high, ranging from 41.05% (week-4) to 39.13% (week -1) for Shami goats and ranging from 30.75% (week-4) to 30.58% (week -1) for Ardi goats. During the post-parturient phase (day +1 to day +4), a sharp significant decrease in immunoglobulin concentration was observed following parturition. Values dropped substantially at day +1 (32.03 vs. 27.88) and continued a gentle decline, reaching 16.23 and 10.53% by day +4 for Shami and Ardi goats, respectively. Across the four-day period, the Shami breed showed a higher (P<0.0001) overall mean immunoglobulins percentage (24.38%) compared to the ardi breed (19.88%).

Table 1: Colostrum refractometery immunoglobulins of Shami and Ardi goats during pre-term (week -4 to week -1) and post-term (day +1 to day +4) periods.



Fig 2: The box plot of refractometric assessment of immunoglobulin secretion dynamics during pre-term and post-term periods in Shami and Ardi goats.


 
Colostrum and milk physicochemical composition
 
Physicochemical composition of colostrum and transitional milk of Shami and Ardi goats during periparturient period is presented in Table (2). The results revealed significant differences between the two breeds (Ardi and Shami) and across the two physiological periods (pre-term and post-term). In all measured parameters, the Shami breed consistently showed higher values compared to the Ardi. For both breeds, there was a noticeable decline in fat, SNF, protein and lactose levels as the colostrum transitioned from the pre-term to the post-term period. These higher contents of solid contents of Shami colostrum were reflected in higher values of density and freezing point if compared to Ardi colostrum.

Table 2: Chemical composition of Ardi and Shami goat breeds at pre-term (week -1) and post-term (day +1) periods.


 
Colostrum pH pre-term and post-term
 
The analysis of colostrum pH values revealed significant variations influenced by both the goat breed and the timing of secretion relative to parturition (Fig 3). There was a clear and significant increase in pH values as the goats transitioned from the pre-term (-1 week) to the post-term (+1 day) stage. The Ardi colostrum consistently maintained a higher pH compared to Shami one in both the pre-term (6.9 vs. 6.8) and post-term (7.2 vs. 7.1) phases. This overall trend indicates that both breeds follow a similar biological trend of decreasing acidity in postpartum secreted colostrum and the Shami goats produce more acidic colostrum throughout the periparturient period.

Fig 3: Changes of colostrum pH during pre-term and post-term stages of Ardi and Shami goat breeds.


 
Blood profiles
 
The blood profiles results showed significant differences across all measured parameters between the two breeds (Table 3).
       

Table 3: Blood profiles of Ardi and Shami goat breeds at post-term (day +1) period.



The Shami goats exhibited higher mean values of all measured parameters compared to the Ardi ones. Shami goats showed higher hematocrit and hemoglobin levels than Ardi goats. In addition, total protein and glucose levels were also higher in the Shami breed, with glucose levels reaching 63.50 mg/dL compared to 54.0 mg/dL in the Ardi breed. The Shami breed shows high non-significant HDL value (56.0 mg/dL; P>0.06) compared to the Ardi goats (48.50 mg/dL) as well as high non-significant triglycerides value (70.50 mg/dL; P>0.07) than the Ardi goats (67.00 mg/dL).
       
Refractometric assessment of immunoglobulin secretion dynamics and nutritive values of colostrum and transitional milk across the periparturient period in addition to blood profiles of Ardi and Shami goats are presented in Fig (2) and Table (1-3). The transition from gestation to lactation stages in goats represents one of the most important physiological period for dairy production. It is characterized by profound shifts in mammary metabolic activity and the initiation of colostrogenesis. The current study provides comparative analyses of colostrum and transitional milk in Shami and Ardi goats from four weeks pre-partum to four days post-partum. Our findings indicated that the Shami breed demonstrated superior nutrient density and higher concentrations of immunoglobulins, fat and protein compared to the Ardi breed. Furthermore, the transient peak in colostrum immunoglobulins levels on the first day postpartum indicates the biological urgency of early neonatal nutrition to supply energy and prevent the failure of passive transfer. By examining these physicochemical and hematological variations, the study explores how goat breed and periparturient period influence the quality of the colostrum and transitional milk.

Immunoglobulins secretion dynamics
 
The immunoglobulins secretion dynamics observed in this study reveal a significant physiological shift between the pre-term and post-term stages, indicating the importance of colostrogenesis period in both Ardi and Shami goats (Schalich et al., 2021; Baumrucker et al., 2023). The uniformly high Igs concentrations maintained during the four weeks preceding parturition. It is ranged approximately from 39% to 41% in Shami colostrum and from 30 to 31% in Ardi colostrum. This indicate that the sequestration of immunoglobulins from maternal circulation into the mammary gland is a prolonged and highly organized process. The superiority of the Shami breed in Igs levels during this phase suggests a more robust capacity for passive immunity transfer, which might be a breed-specific trait linked to their higher overall metabolic and synthetic activity.
       
The sharp significant decrease in Igs concentrations observed immediately following day 1 of parturition marks the rapid transition from colostrum to transitional milk (Akhter et al., 2021). This decline characterized by a drop of 18.79 % in Shami and 17.28% in Ardi between the first and second days is well-documented in ruminants (Alhamd and Mohammed, 2026; Alkhalifah and Mohammed, 2026). This phenomenon often attributed to the dilution effect as milk volume increases and the tight junctions of the mammary epithelium close (Ahmann et al., 2021). Despite this decline, the Shami breed consistently maintained higher overall mean Igs percentages (24.38%) compared to the Ardi breed (19.88%), underscoring a distinct breed dichotomy (P<0.0001). These findings highlight the importance of first 24 hours postpartum as a critical golden window for neonatal survival where the rapid depletion of Igs significantly increases the risk of FPT if kids do not consume early postpartum colostrum.
 
Colostrum physicochemical composition
 
The physicochemical composition of colostrum observed in this study presents significant differences between the Shami and Ardi breeds during the periparturient period (-1 week vs. +1 day). The consistently higher values of fat, solids-not-fat (SNF), protein and lactose in Shami goats (P<0.0001) compared to Ardi goats suggest that the Shami breed possesses a more robust mammary synthetic capacity. The elevated protein levels in Shami colostrum (8.70% pre-term vs. 5.43% in Ardi) might be attributed to a more efficient transfer of immunoglobulins and bioactive peptides, which are essential for neonatal survival in high-producing dairy breeds (Arslan et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024). The observed higher fat content in Shami colostrum (5.08% pre-term) likely serves as a critical thermogenic energy source for the newborn, a trait that appears more pronounced in the Shami breed than in the Ardi (Erkinger et al., 2026).
       
The marked decline in SNF, protein and fat as both breeds transitioned from the pre-term to the post-term period is a well-documented phenomenon in ruminant physiology, representing the dilution effect as milk volume increases and the mammary gland shifts from colostrogenesis to mature milk production (Krogh et al., 2021). Interestingly, while Ardi goats are highly adapted to the arid Al-Ahsa environment and known for their resilience, the Shami breed maintained a superior nutrient density even during this transition. This higher concentration of total solids was further reflected in the significantly higher density and freezing point values for Shami colostrum, which are direct physical consequences of increased solute concentration. These breed-specific variations underscore the importance of specialized management; while Ardi colostrum provides the necessary concentrated nutrients for survival in harsh conditions, the Shami breed offers a higher total nutrient load that supports the rapid growth rates characteristic of improved dairy breeds.
 
Pre-term and post-term colostrum pH
 
The observed increase in colostrum pH from pre-term to post-term stages in both Ardi and Shami breeds, as illustrated in Fig (3), aligns with the established physiological shift in ruminants from colostrogenesis to mature lactation. The significantly lower pH in pre-term colostrum (6.8-6.9) is primarily attributed to high concentrations of immunoglobulins, caseins and essential minerals like calcium and phosphate, which create a more acidic environment compared to mature milk (Playford and Weiser, 2021; Silva et al., 2024; Jonathan et al., 2025). As the secretion transitions post-term, the rise in pH to 7.1-7.2 likely reflects the dilution of these acidic components and a change in mammary tight junction permeability, allowing for an increased influx of alkaline electrolytes from the blood (Kivlighan et al., 2024). The consistent breed-specific difference, where Shami goats exhibited more acidic values than Ardi goats, may suggest inherent variations in mineral partitioning or protein density between these specific caprine breeds during the periparturient period (Table 1 and 2).
 
Blood profiles
 
The hematological and biochemical profiles are presented in Table (3). The results indicate that the Shami goats maintains higher levels of hematocrit, hemoglobin, total protein and glucose compared to the Ardi ones. These differences likely stem from a combination of genetic adaptation, metabolic efficiency and environmental resilience (Benashour et al., 2024). The significantly higher hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in Shami goats suggest a superior oxygen-carrying capacity. This is often seen in breed adapted to higher metabolic demands or those with better resilience to heat stress (Zhu et al., 2025). Higher hemoglobin levels are typically associated with better nutritional status and a robust response to the physiological demands of growth or lactation (Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh, 2023).
       
The higher total protein in Shami breed compared to Ardi breed (7.37 g/dL vs. 6.30 g/dL) may reflect a more efficient protein metabolism or a higher plane of nutrition (Wang et al., 2025). Serum protein is a vital indicator of the animal’s nutritional state and its ability to synthesize enzymes and maintain osmotic pressure. Glucose is the primary energy source for cellular metabolism. The significantly higher glucose levels in the Shami breed compared to Ardi breed (63.50 mg/dL vs. 54.0 mg/dL) suggest energy reservoirs due to more efficient gluconeogenesis process (Lin et al., 2024). While glucose can rise during acute stress, the consistently higher levels alongside other positive health markers suggest a higher baseline energy availability in the Shami breed compared to the Ardi. The Ardi goat is a local breed known for its extreme hardiness in desert conditions, often prioritizing survival and water conservation (Al-Atiyat and Aljumaah, 2014). In contrast, the Shami goat is often categorized as a high-performance breed with greater potential for milk and meat production, which necessitates the higher metabolic markers (glucose and protein) observed in this data.

CONCLUSION

Distinct physiological differences in colostrum secretion dynamics and metabolic profiles during the periparturient period were observed. Immunoglobulin secretion dynamics and colostrum quality were significantly influenced by the periparturient period and the goat breed. The pre-term period characterized by significantly higher concentrations of immunoglobulins, fat, protein and solids-not-fat compared to the post-term phase. The Shami breed consistently outperformed the Ardi breed in nearly all measured parameters, exhibiting higher levels of immunoglobulins and essential nutrients, as well as superior hematological profiles and energy markers like triglycerides and glucose. The observation of a sharp decline in immunoglobulin concentration immediately following the first day of parturition highlights the critical golden window for passive immune transfer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [KFU264000].
 
Disclaimers
 
The conclusions and views expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors and do not represent the views of their affiliated institutions.
 
Funding
 
This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [KFU264000].
 
Author contributions
 
All authors collected the data, wrote the manuscript, reviewed and edited the final manuscript file.
 
Informed consent
 
Animal cares and experimental procedures were approved by the ethical committee of scientific research at King Faisal University (KFU264000).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

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    Refractometric Assessment of Immunoglobulin Secretion Dynamics and Nutritive Values of Colostrum and Transitional Milk Across the Periparturient Period in Ardi and Shami Goats

    A
    A.A. Mohammed1,*
    S
    S. Al-Suwaiegh1
    1Department of Animal and Fish Production, College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, P.O. Box 402, Al-Ahsa 31982, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Colostrum is indispensable for the survival and health of goats’ kids because the maternal immunoglobulins (Igs) are not transferred in utero due to the epitheliochorial placental structure. The current study aimed to explore colostrum physicochemical composition and immunoglobulins secretion dynamics across four weeks pre-term and four days post-term periods in Shami and Ardi goats.

    Methods: Six Shami and six Ardi goats were followed for immunoglobulins secretion dynamics in colostrum and milk over the pre-term and post-term periods in addition to hematological profiles (day +1).

    Result: The results indicated key differences of all measured parameters between Shami and Ardi colostrum. High values of immunoglobulins, fat, solids not fat, protein and lactose (P<0.001) of colostrum obtained during pre-term period if compared to those of colostrum obtained during post-term period of both Shami and Ardi goats. A sharp decrease in immunoglobulins concentration was observed after day 1 of parturition. Furthermore, Shami colostrum had higher immunoglobulins, fat, solids not fat, protein and lactose values if compared to Ardi colostrum either during pre-term or post-term periods. Shami goats had high hematological values if compared to those of Ardi ones.

    INTRODUCTION

    Colostrum, the initial mammary secretion following parturition, is recognized as a biological necessity for neonates, serving as a critical bridge between the sterile intrauterine and the external environment (Grodkowska et al., 2023). Its primary function is to provide a concentrated, easily digestible source of energy, vitamins and growth factors to facilitate passive immunity through the transfer of maternal immunoglobulins (Rostoll-Cangiano et al., 2025; Mohammed and Alshaibani, 2025; Mohammed et al., 2025, 2026). This passive transfer is vital for protecting the newborns against prevalent pathogens during the first weeks of life until its own adaptive immune system matures (Albrecht and Arck, 2020). Consequently, the quality, volume and timing of colostrum secretion are fundamental determinants of neonatal health, vitality and subsequent survival across diverse mammalian species (Silva et al., 2024; Alhamd and Mohammed, 2026; Alkhalifah and Mohammed, 2026).
           
    In caprine species, the reliance on colostral intake is particularly acute due to their epitheliochorial placental structure, which largely precludes the prenatal transfer of maternal antibodies (Yang et al., 2025). Goats’ kids are therefore born “agammaglobulinemic”, necessitating the rapid absorption of immunoglobulins from colostrum within the first 24 hours of life to achieve adequate passive transfer (Martínez et al., 2020). Failure of passive transfer (FPT) due to insufficient colostrum quantity, poor chemical quality, or delayed intake is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in young neonates (Lichtmannsperger et al., 2023). Furthermore, the specialized composition of caprine colostrum serves as a precise barometer of the dam’s intense metabolic demands and periparturient physiological status (Lu et al., 2016).
           
    The Ardi and Shami goat breeds are two of the most prominent breeds in the middle east. They share a high tolerance for harsh and arid environments but they differ significantly in their primary uses and body characters. The indigenous KSA Ardi goat is primarily valued for its resilience and adaptation to desert heat and water scarcity. It is considered a dual-purpose breed for milk and meat production. Ardi goats produce under good management about 0.8 to 1.2 kg of milk/day, with a lactation stage of 150-180 days. They often have a twinning rate of about 1.2 - 1.5 kids per kidding (Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh 2023). The indigenous Syria Shami goat is world-renowned as a premium dairy breed and is frequently used in crossbreeding programs to improve milk and growth traits in other local breeds. Shami goat produces 350-650 kg milk/lactation and a twinning rate of about 1.8-2.0 kids per kidding (Ali et al., 2025).
           
    While the critical role of colostrum is well-established for neonates, the influence of gestation length on its immediate secretion dynamics and nutrient profiles remains an area of interest requiring closer scrutiny (Uyama et al., 2022). Normal caprine gestation is approximately 150 days. Genetic and/or environmental factors can lead to premature or delayed kidding (Amaro et al., 2000). Mammary gland maturation and the concentration of immunoglobulins in colostrum are highly synchronized with hormonal shifts and the precise timing of delivery (Kayatani et al., 2022). It is hypothesized that an unnaturally early or late parturition may disrupt these complex preparatory stages (Gáspárdy et al., 2024). Understanding these effects is essential, as altered colostrum quality due to timing of delivery may predispose kids to FPT and nutritional deficits regardless of management system (Westhoff et al., 2024). Therefore, the current study objectives were to conduct a comparative analysis of colostrum derived from Ardi and Shami goats during four weeks pre-term and four days post-term periods. Specifically, we aimed to compare the detailed chemical composition, focusing on immunoglobulins concentrations (Brix%), total solids, protein, fat and lactose across these two periods. The findings might provide crucial insights into how parturition timing modulates colostrum biosynthesis and offer practical guidance for management strategies aimed at mitigating the risks associated with non-term kidding in commercial goat production systems.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Study design and ethical approval
     
    The study was designed to compare between colostrum/transitional milk quality obtained during four weeks pre-term (-4 weeks) and four days post-term (+4 days) of Shami and Ardi goats of third parity and twin birth (Fig 1). The study protocol was approved by the ethical committee of King Faisal University [KFU-REC-2026-JAN-EA263]. The present experiment was carried out from October to March 2026 in the department of animal and fish production of KFU. Twelve pregnant goats (6 Ardi goats and 6 Shami) were used for conducting the study for four weeks before parturition and four days after parturition (Fig 1). The colostrum and transitional milk samples were collected weekly before parturition (5 ml for week -4 to -2 and 25ml for week -1) and daily (25 ml) after parturition. The collected samples were monitored for brix refractometer (%), physicochemical composition analysis, in addition to blood profiles.

    Fig 1: Experimental design, timing of colostrum collection and chemical analysis.


     
    Colostrum and milk collection
     
    To monitor pregnant does, records and ultrasonography methods were used to predict the expected delivery date and assess fetal status. Colostrum was collected at a standardized time point before delivery (week-4, week-3, week-2 and week -1) and after delivery (day +1, day +2, day +3 and day +4). Samples were collected using sterile technique via hand milking into sterile collection containers.
     
    Colostrum and milk analyses using milk tester and brix refractometer
     
    The colostrum samples were analyzed using milk analyzer (Milkotronic Ltd., Bulgaria). Twenty millimeters of samples were used for analyses of SNF, protein, fat, lactose and minerals. The digital Brix refractometer (SOONDA Official Store) was used to measure immunoglobulins values (refractometer brix %). The refractometer was cleaned and calibrated with purified water (Caisson, USA) before sample measurement. The refractometer was adjusted until the reading was 0.0% Brix. Colostrum samples were mixed thoroughly to ensure homogeneity before analysis. A small, representative aliquot of the colostrum (2-3 drops) was drawn using a disposable pipette and placed into the clean prism surface of the refractometer. The reading was taken after allowing 15-30 seconds for temperature equilibration and the digital brix value was recorded.
     
    Monitoring colostrum and milk pH
     
    Colostrum and milk pH values were monitored using portable pH meter (Model: PH-107, China).
     
    Blood and plasma samples’ collection and analyses
     
    Blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture into vacuum tubes containing EDTA for hematology and plasma separation. The collected blood samples were centrifuged at 2,000 g for 10 minutes at 4°C to collect plasma samples. The blood samples were used for determination of hematocrit and hemoglobin values (Drabkin colorimetric, diamond diagnostic). Plasma concentrations of total protein, glucose, triglycerides and HDL were determined by spectrophotometer (Unico, USA) using commercial test kits: glucose by the enzymatic colorimetric method (Beach and Turner, 1958), total protein by biuret reagent (Gornall et al., 1949) and triglycerides (Fossati and Prencipe, 1982) and HDL (Lopes-Virella et al., 1977).
     
    Data statistical analysis
     
    The brix values (%) for pre-term and post-term colostrum and transitional milk of Shami and Ardi goats were recorded and compared. In addition, the physicochemical composition values including fat, SNF, protein, lactose, minerals, density and freezing point for pre-term and post-term colostrum of Shami and Ardi goats were recorded and compared. The data were subjected to statistical analysis of ANOVA repeated measures for breed (Shami vs. Ardi.) and period (pre-term vs. post-term) using the general linear models of SPSS (version 27.0). In addition, the pH and blood data were statistically analyzed using T-test procedure to compare the means of two groups. Comparison between the two groups considered statistically significant at p<0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Immunoglobulins secretion dynamics
     
    The dynamics of mammary immunoglobulins secretion, as measured by refractometry, across the periparturient period is presented in Table (1) and Fig (2). During the pre-parturient phase (week -4 to week -1), immunoglobulins concentrations remained uniformly high, ranging from 41.05% (week-4) to 39.13% (week -1) for Shami goats and ranging from 30.75% (week-4) to 30.58% (week -1) for Ardi goats. During the post-parturient phase (day +1 to day +4), a sharp significant decrease in immunoglobulin concentration was observed following parturition. Values dropped substantially at day +1 (32.03 vs. 27.88) and continued a gentle decline, reaching 16.23 and 10.53% by day +4 for Shami and Ardi goats, respectively. Across the four-day period, the Shami breed showed a higher (P<0.0001) overall mean immunoglobulins percentage (24.38%) compared to the ardi breed (19.88%).

    Table 1: Colostrum refractometery immunoglobulins of Shami and Ardi goats during pre-term (week -4 to week -1) and post-term (day +1 to day +4) periods.



    Fig 2: The box plot of refractometric assessment of immunoglobulin secretion dynamics during pre-term and post-term periods in Shami and Ardi goats.


     
    Colostrum and milk physicochemical composition
     
    Physicochemical composition of colostrum and transitional milk of Shami and Ardi goats during periparturient period is presented in Table (2). The results revealed significant differences between the two breeds (Ardi and Shami) and across the two physiological periods (pre-term and post-term). In all measured parameters, the Shami breed consistently showed higher values compared to the Ardi. For both breeds, there was a noticeable decline in fat, SNF, protein and lactose levels as the colostrum transitioned from the pre-term to the post-term period. These higher contents of solid contents of Shami colostrum were reflected in higher values of density and freezing point if compared to Ardi colostrum.

    Table 2: Chemical composition of Ardi and Shami goat breeds at pre-term (week -1) and post-term (day +1) periods.


     
    Colostrum pH pre-term and post-term
     
    The analysis of colostrum pH values revealed significant variations influenced by both the goat breed and the timing of secretion relative to parturition (Fig 3). There was a clear and significant increase in pH values as the goats transitioned from the pre-term (-1 week) to the post-term (+1 day) stage. The Ardi colostrum consistently maintained a higher pH compared to Shami one in both the pre-term (6.9 vs. 6.8) and post-term (7.2 vs. 7.1) phases. This overall trend indicates that both breeds follow a similar biological trend of decreasing acidity in postpartum secreted colostrum and the Shami goats produce more acidic colostrum throughout the periparturient period.

    Fig 3: Changes of colostrum pH during pre-term and post-term stages of Ardi and Shami goat breeds.


     
    Blood profiles
     
    The blood profiles results showed significant differences across all measured parameters between the two breeds (Table 3).
           

    Table 3: Blood profiles of Ardi and Shami goat breeds at post-term (day +1) period.



    The Shami goats exhibited higher mean values of all measured parameters compared to the Ardi ones. Shami goats showed higher hematocrit and hemoglobin levels than Ardi goats. In addition, total protein and glucose levels were also higher in the Shami breed, with glucose levels reaching 63.50 mg/dL compared to 54.0 mg/dL in the Ardi breed. The Shami breed shows high non-significant HDL value (56.0 mg/dL; P>0.06) compared to the Ardi goats (48.50 mg/dL) as well as high non-significant triglycerides value (70.50 mg/dL; P>0.07) than the Ardi goats (67.00 mg/dL).
           
    Refractometric assessment of immunoglobulin secretion dynamics and nutritive values of colostrum and transitional milk across the periparturient period in addition to blood profiles of Ardi and Shami goats are presented in Fig (2) and Table (1-3). The transition from gestation to lactation stages in goats represents one of the most important physiological period for dairy production. It is characterized by profound shifts in mammary metabolic activity and the initiation of colostrogenesis. The current study provides comparative analyses of colostrum and transitional milk in Shami and Ardi goats from four weeks pre-partum to four days post-partum. Our findings indicated that the Shami breed demonstrated superior nutrient density and higher concentrations of immunoglobulins, fat and protein compared to the Ardi breed. Furthermore, the transient peak in colostrum immunoglobulins levels on the first day postpartum indicates the biological urgency of early neonatal nutrition to supply energy and prevent the failure of passive transfer. By examining these physicochemical and hematological variations, the study explores how goat breed and periparturient period influence the quality of the colostrum and transitional milk.

    Immunoglobulins secretion dynamics
     
    The immunoglobulins secretion dynamics observed in this study reveal a significant physiological shift between the pre-term and post-term stages, indicating the importance of colostrogenesis period in both Ardi and Shami goats (Schalich et al., 2021; Baumrucker et al., 2023). The uniformly high Igs concentrations maintained during the four weeks preceding parturition. It is ranged approximately from 39% to 41% in Shami colostrum and from 30 to 31% in Ardi colostrum. This indicate that the sequestration of immunoglobulins from maternal circulation into the mammary gland is a prolonged and highly organized process. The superiority of the Shami breed in Igs levels during this phase suggests a more robust capacity for passive immunity transfer, which might be a breed-specific trait linked to their higher overall metabolic and synthetic activity.
           
    The sharp significant decrease in Igs concentrations observed immediately following day 1 of parturition marks the rapid transition from colostrum to transitional milk (Akhter et al., 2021). This decline characterized by a drop of 18.79 % in Shami and 17.28% in Ardi between the first and second days is well-documented in ruminants (Alhamd and Mohammed, 2026; Alkhalifah and Mohammed, 2026). This phenomenon often attributed to the dilution effect as milk volume increases and the tight junctions of the mammary epithelium close (Ahmann et al., 2021). Despite this decline, the Shami breed consistently maintained higher overall mean Igs percentages (24.38%) compared to the Ardi breed (19.88%), underscoring a distinct breed dichotomy (P<0.0001). These findings highlight the importance of first 24 hours postpartum as a critical golden window for neonatal survival where the rapid depletion of Igs significantly increases the risk of FPT if kids do not consume early postpartum colostrum.
     
    Colostrum physicochemical composition
     
    The physicochemical composition of colostrum observed in this study presents significant differences between the Shami and Ardi breeds during the periparturient period (-1 week vs. +1 day). The consistently higher values of fat, solids-not-fat (SNF), protein and lactose in Shami goats (P<0.0001) compared to Ardi goats suggest that the Shami breed possesses a more robust mammary synthetic capacity. The elevated protein levels in Shami colostrum (8.70% pre-term vs. 5.43% in Ardi) might be attributed to a more efficient transfer of immunoglobulins and bioactive peptides, which are essential for neonatal survival in high-producing dairy breeds (Arslan et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024). The observed higher fat content in Shami colostrum (5.08% pre-term) likely serves as a critical thermogenic energy source for the newborn, a trait that appears more pronounced in the Shami breed than in the Ardi (Erkinger et al., 2026).
           
    The marked decline in SNF, protein and fat as both breeds transitioned from the pre-term to the post-term period is a well-documented phenomenon in ruminant physiology, representing the dilution effect as milk volume increases and the mammary gland shifts from colostrogenesis to mature milk production (Krogh et al., 2021). Interestingly, while Ardi goats are highly adapted to the arid Al-Ahsa environment and known for their resilience, the Shami breed maintained a superior nutrient density even during this transition. This higher concentration of total solids was further reflected in the significantly higher density and freezing point values for Shami colostrum, which are direct physical consequences of increased solute concentration. These breed-specific variations underscore the importance of specialized management; while Ardi colostrum provides the necessary concentrated nutrients for survival in harsh conditions, the Shami breed offers a higher total nutrient load that supports the rapid growth rates characteristic of improved dairy breeds.
     
    Pre-term and post-term colostrum pH
     
    The observed increase in colostrum pH from pre-term to post-term stages in both Ardi and Shami breeds, as illustrated in Fig (3), aligns with the established physiological shift in ruminants from colostrogenesis to mature lactation. The significantly lower pH in pre-term colostrum (6.8-6.9) is primarily attributed to high concentrations of immunoglobulins, caseins and essential minerals like calcium and phosphate, which create a more acidic environment compared to mature milk (Playford and Weiser, 2021; Silva et al., 2024; Jonathan et al., 2025). As the secretion transitions post-term, the rise in pH to 7.1-7.2 likely reflects the dilution of these acidic components and a change in mammary tight junction permeability, allowing for an increased influx of alkaline electrolytes from the blood (Kivlighan et al., 2024). The consistent breed-specific difference, where Shami goats exhibited more acidic values than Ardi goats, may suggest inherent variations in mineral partitioning or protein density between these specific caprine breeds during the periparturient period (Table 1 and 2).
     
    Blood profiles
     
    The hematological and biochemical profiles are presented in Table (3). The results indicate that the Shami goats maintains higher levels of hematocrit, hemoglobin, total protein and glucose compared to the Ardi ones. These differences likely stem from a combination of genetic adaptation, metabolic efficiency and environmental resilience (Benashour et al., 2024). The significantly higher hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in Shami goats suggest a superior oxygen-carrying capacity. This is often seen in breed adapted to higher metabolic demands or those with better resilience to heat stress (Zhu et al., 2025). Higher hemoglobin levels are typically associated with better nutritional status and a robust response to the physiological demands of growth or lactation (Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh, 2023).
           
    The higher total protein in Shami breed compared to Ardi breed (7.37 g/dL vs. 6.30 g/dL) may reflect a more efficient protein metabolism or a higher plane of nutrition (Wang et al., 2025). Serum protein is a vital indicator of the animal’s nutritional state and its ability to synthesize enzymes and maintain osmotic pressure. Glucose is the primary energy source for cellular metabolism. The significantly higher glucose levels in the Shami breed compared to Ardi breed (63.50 mg/dL vs. 54.0 mg/dL) suggest energy reservoirs due to more efficient gluconeogenesis process (Lin et al., 2024). While glucose can rise during acute stress, the consistently higher levels alongside other positive health markers suggest a higher baseline energy availability in the Shami breed compared to the Ardi. The Ardi goat is a local breed known for its extreme hardiness in desert conditions, often prioritizing survival and water conservation (Al-Atiyat and Aljumaah, 2014). In contrast, the Shami goat is often categorized as a high-performance breed with greater potential for milk and meat production, which necessitates the higher metabolic markers (glucose and protein) observed in this data.

    CONCLUSION

    Distinct physiological differences in colostrum secretion dynamics and metabolic profiles during the periparturient period were observed. Immunoglobulin secretion dynamics and colostrum quality were significantly influenced by the periparturient period and the goat breed. The pre-term period characterized by significantly higher concentrations of immunoglobulins, fat, protein and solids-not-fat compared to the post-term phase. The Shami breed consistently outperformed the Ardi breed in nearly all measured parameters, exhibiting higher levels of immunoglobulins and essential nutrients, as well as superior hematological profiles and energy markers like triglycerides and glucose. The observation of a sharp decline in immunoglobulin concentration immediately following the first day of parturition highlights the critical golden window for passive immune transfer.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [KFU264000].
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The conclusions and views expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors and do not represent the views of their affiliated institutions.
     
    Funding
     
    This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [KFU264000].
     
    Author contributions
     
    All authors collected the data, wrote the manuscript, reviewed and edited the final manuscript file.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Animal cares and experimental procedures were approved by the ethical committee of scientific research at King Faisal University (KFU264000).

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors have no conflicts of interest.

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