Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics of Majaheem and Waddah Camel Breeds under Extensive Management System

With the global population expected to reach 10.4 billion by 2100 driven by increased lifespans and lower death rates, food security has become a critical in 21^st century challenge. Meeting this demand requires intensified and sustainable agricultural production, including both crops and livestock, a trend already underway (Gilbert et al., 2021). Camel breeds are the most important domesticated animals in Saudi Arabia, uniquely adapted to harsh environments, playing a crucial role in this effort, providing essential meat, milk, urine, wool and fertilizer for both nomadic and settled dwellers (Banaja and Ghandour 1994; Mohammed and Alshaibani 2024, 2025; Mohammed et al., 2025).
       
The global camel population, estimated at 35 million, is concentrated primarily in Africa including countries like Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan with largest dairy camel herds (Sikkema et al., 2019). It has been reported that 90% of camels are the one-humped Camelus dromedarius. The number of milk-producing C. dromedarius camels, along with annual camel milk production, is steadily increasing. Camels are considered a vital protein source, particularly for those in arid regions, such as nomadic communities with limited access to other protein. The growing demand for camel milk and its products reflects its increasing recognition as a nutritious and therapeutic food (El-Hanafy  et al., 2023). Several studies indicated beneficial effects of camel milk in decreasing blood glucose values, improving liver and kidney enzymes (Alharbi et al., 2022; Hamouda  et  al., 2024; Arain et al., 2025).
       
Majaheem camels are a prominent breed in the Arabian Peninsula, particularly Saudi Arabia. They are easily recognizable by their large size and striking black coat, which can range from dark brown to nearly black. Majaheem is a vital part of Saudi Arabia heritage and a testament to the country’s long-standing tradition of camel husbandry. In addition, the Waddah camel, primarily found in Sudan, is a distinct breed known for its striking white coat, a stark contrast to the darker hues of many other camel breeds (Fig 1). In general, both breeds are excellent milk producers, but Majaheem camels are often cited as having a slight edge in terms of both quantity and quality of milk (El-Hanafy  et al., 2023).

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Majaheem or black camels and Waddah (or Maghatir) or white camels are the most common camel breeds in Saudi Arabia (Tharwat and Al-Hawas, 2024). Physiological and blood parameters are vital indicators of an animal’s health and well-being (Senosy  et al., 2017, 2018). Normal ranges for physiological and blood parameters vary between breeds, age and animal’s health. The average milk yield (kg/week) of Majaheem and Waddah camel breeds in Saudi Arabia is 38.0 and 33.3 kg, respectively (El-Hanafy  et al., 2023). The camel species raised in extensive management system in KSA suffer from harsh environmental condition including high temperature and radiation, shortage of nutrient availability and quality, which negatively effect on productive and reproductive performance (Mohammed et al., 2025). In addition, there is a negative relationship between milk production and reproductive performance (Amma et al., 2024). Therefore, the aims of the present study were to explore the changes in number of insemination per pregnancy, rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2 of Majaheem and Waddah breeds under extensive management system. Besides, the changes in haematological and plasma biochemistry profiles were investigated as reference values in the Majaheem and Waddah breeds for gaining insights into the overall health of Majaheem and Waddah breeds.

The experimental procedure was approved by the ethical committee of King Faisal University [KFU-REC-2025-FEB-EA252670]. The procedures of experiment were carried out in the experimental animal lab of Agriculture and Food Sciences College, KFU University.

Site of study and animal management
 
The present study was executed from December 2024 to February 2025. Ten Majaheem and Ten Waddah she-camel breeds under extensive management system were selected for the study (Fig 2). The animals were multiparous, none pregnant and 8-10 years old during 2-4 months of lactation stage. Animals were fed on grazing system in addition to berseem hay only. The relative humidity (%) and temperature (°C) values during the study were controlled to 35±2.50°C and 40±9.0%, respectively. The duration of study was twelve weeks.


 
Monitoring numbers of insemination per pregnancy
 
After calving of she-camel, the numbers of insemination per pregnancy were counted per she-camel until confirmation of pregnancy.
 
Monitoring values of rectal temperature, pulse rate and partial pressure of oxygen
 
The she-camel Majaheem and Waddah breeds were sedated using xylazine for immediate recording of rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2. Rectal temperatures were monitored using clinical thermometer (Citizen). Pulse oximeter device was used for recording pulse rate and partial pressure of oxygen (CMS60D-VET) (Mohammed et al., 2024).
 
Blood sample collection and analyses
 
Blood samples were collected from the jugular veins of she-camel Majaheem and Waddah breeds. The obtained blood samples were analyzed using automatic hematology analyzer and biochemistry analyzer (Mythic 5Vet PRO and Skyla VB1 Analyzer). The resulting blood parameters include red and white blood cell profiles. The resulting biochemistry parameters include total proteins, urea, creatinine, liver and kidney enzymes and mineral values.
 
Statistical analysis
 
Number of insemination, rectal temperature, pulse rate, SPO2, blood and plasma profile values of Majaheem and Waddah breeds were statistically analyzed using T-test procedure to compare the means of two groups (SAS 2008) according to model:
 

Y_ij = μ + T_i+ e_ij

 
Where,
μ = Mean.
T_i = Effects of Majaheem and Waddah breeds.
E_ij = Standard error.
       
Duncan’s multiple range test (1955) was used to compare between means of Majaheem and Waddah groups.

Number of insemination, rectal temperature, pulse rate, SPO2, blood and plasma profile values of Majaheem and Waddah breeds are presented in Table (1-3).
 
Number of insemination, rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2
 
Number of insemination per pregnancy, rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2 are presented in (Table 1). Number of insemination per pregnancy was significantly decreased in Waddah she-camel group compared to that of Majaheem she-camel group. In addition, hyperthermia of rectal temperature (°C) was recorded in Majaheem she-camel group. Furthermore, pulse rate was higher (P<0.06) of Majaheem she-camel group whereas SPO2 values were not differed between groups.


 
Blood and plasma profiles
 
Values of blood profiles of Majaheem and Waddah breeds are presented in (Table 2). The Majaheem group had significantly lower (<0.0001) RBCs counts (7.31x10⁶/µl) compared to Waddah group (8.20x10⁶/µl). Similarly, the Majaheem group had a lower PCV (24.0%) compared to Waddah group (29.80%). In addition, the Majaheem group also had lower hemoglobin levels (11.0 g/dl) compared to Waddah group (12.0 g/dl). The Majaheem group had lower (P<0.0001) WBCs count (17.36x10³/µl) and their types compared to Waddah group.

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The values of plasma biochemical profiles of Majaheem and Waddah breeds are presented in (Table 3). The Majaheem group had significantly lower values in all of plasma biochemical profiles if compared to Waddah group.

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Results of the current study are showed in Table (1-3) indicating physiological, hematological and plasma biochemistry profiles of Majaheem and Waddah breeds.
 
Number of insemination, rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2
 
Number of insemination per pregnancy, rectal temperature, pulse rate and SPO2 are presented in (Table 1). Majaheem she-camel required slightly more inseminations per pregnancy (5.40) compared to Waddah she-camel group (5.0). This might be attributed to higher milk production of Majaheem compared to Waddah she-camels (El-Hanafy et al., 2023). There is an inverse relationship between milk production and reproductive performance (Antanaitis et al., 2024). Majaheem had a higher (P<0.01) rectal temperature (37.62°C) than Waddah she-camel group (37.48°C). Such result could be related to breed differences in colour (Fig 1), where Majaheem and Waddah she-camels are striking black and white coats, respectively. Furthermore, pulse rate was higher (P<0.05) of Majaheem she-camel group whereas SPO2 values were not differed between groups due to higher body temperature.
 
Blood and plasma profiles
 
Values of blood profiles of Majaheem and Waddah breeds are presented in (Table 2). Blood and plasma profiles are indispensable tools that provide valuable insights into an animal’s health and consequently reflect the appropriateness of management system. Red blood cell counts, hemoglobin and hematocrit levels help diagnose different types of anemia.
       
In addition, white blood cells (WBCs) are a crucial part of immune system, defending body against infections and other diseases. The Majaheem group had significantly lower RBCs counts, PCV, hemoglobin values compared to Waddah group. On the other hand, the Majaheem group had higher (P<0.0001) WBCs count (17.36x10³/µl) and their types compared to Waddah group. Such differences might be related to breed and milk production differences. It seems that the hematological parameters were ranged within normal levels of values of Camelus dromedaries (Martín-Barrasa  et al., 2023). These differences likely reflect physiological adaptations to their respective harsh environments; extensive management system.
       
Plasma carries a vast array of substances that are crucial for the body’s function. Analyzing plasma provides valuable insights into various physiological processes and is essential in diagnosing management system. Waddah group had higher total protein, urea, creatinine (P<0.0001) and glucose compared to Majaheem group. This suggests potential differences in protein metabolism or kidney function. Waddah group had substantially higher levels of liver enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and γ-glutamyl transferase) compared to Majaheem group. This suggests potential differences in liver metabolism or possible liver stress in Waddah group. Moreover, Waddah she-camels have higher (P<0.05) creatine kinase levels (84.0 U/l) than Majaheem she-camels (76.0 U/l), potentially indicating differences in muscle metabolism. Simultaneously, Waddah she-camels have higher (P<0.0001) lactate dehydrogenase levels (793.0 U/l) than Majaheem she-camels (639.0 U/l), which might indicate differences in energy metabolism. Although the Waddah she-camels have higher (P<0.0001) iron levels (93.0 µg/dl) than Majaheem (81.0 µg/dl), cupper levels might be due to grazing system, the copper levels are similar between Waddah (75.0 µg/dl) and Majaheem (73.0 µg/dl) groups. It has been indicated that hematological and biochemical profiles might be differed due to productive and reproductive performances (Senosy et al., 2018; Martín-Barrasa  et al., 2023; Mohammed et al., 2025). The results of this study might give references values for the Majaheem and Waddah breeds and might contribute to the understanding of differences in hematological and biochemical profiles in dromedary camel with potential impacts in body health and welfare for those breeds.

It could be concluded that Waddah she-camels have notable differences in several hematological and biochemical parameters compared to Majaheem one. Waddah generally exhibit higher levels of RBCs, WBCs, urea, creatinine, liver enzymes, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and iron. These differences could be attributed to variations in metabolic processes, physiological adaptations, or potential health variations between the two camel breeds. Further investigation and analysis are still needed to determine the underlying causes and clinical significance of these differences.

The authors want to thank and acknowledge Deanship of Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia for funding and support (KFU251474).
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
The Ethical Committee of Deanship of Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia, approved all animal procedures, experimental animal care and handling techniques for experiments (KFU251474).

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.