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Full Research Article

Effects of Breed, Gender and Forage Source within Different Forage-to-Concentrate Ratios on Growth Performance and Structural Traits of Growing Goats

K
Kwan-Woo Kim1
E
Eun-Do Lee1
H
Hyo Jin Kim1
S
Sung June Byun1
B
Byamungu Mayange Tomple1,*
1Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, 50000, Hamyang, Republic of Korea.

ABSTRACT

Background: Breed type, gender and feeding strategies are major determinants of growth performance and body development in goats. However, limited information is available on how forage source within different forage-to-concentrate ratios influences growth and structural traits of Korean native and crossbred goats of both gender.

Methods: Sixteen growing goats comprising Korean native (13.3±1.2 kg) and crossbred (21.9±1.3 kg) animals were evaluated in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with four dietary treatments differing in forage source and forage-to-concentrate ratio. The diets consisted of barnyard millet hay or Bermuda hay provided at low-forage (50:50) or high-forage (60:40) forage-to-concentrate ratios, designated as LF1, LF2, HF1 and HF2. Goats received each treatment across experimental periods during a 5-month feeding trial.

Result: Crossbred goats consistently showed superior growth compared with native goats across dietary treatments. Under low-forage diets, crossbred female goats fed LF1 exhibited higher body weight gain (BWG; 2.5 vs. 1.2 kg), dry matter intake (697.9 vs. 362.8 g/day) and average daily gain (ADG; 70.7 vs. 34.3 g/day) than native goats. Under high-forage diets, HF2 produced the greatest performance in crossbred females, with BWG of 3.6 kg and ADG of 102.9 g/day. Similar trends were observed in males, where crossbred goats showed significantly greater BWG and ADG across diets. Structural traits followed comparable patterns, with crossbred goats displaying larger body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth compared with native goats. Within feeding levels, goats fed LF1 diet under low-forage conditions and HF2 diet under high-forage conditions generally demonstrated superior structural development in both females and males.

INTRODUCTION

Goats (Capra hircus) are among the earliest domesticated livestock species and contribute substantially to global agriculture through meat, milk and fiber production. Among the factors affecting productivity, breed represents a primary genetic determinant of growth potential, body conformation and feed utilization efficiency. Korean native goats have inhabited the Korean Peninsula for nearly 2,000 years and are widely recognized for their adaptability, disease resistance and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, despite their comparatively smaller body size and lower productivity (Kim et al., 2014). In contrast, Korean crossbred goats have been developed to enhance production efficiency and are characterized by faster growth rates, larger body dimensions and improved milk yield (Lee et al., 2016). Such genetic differences significantly influence growth and structural development, highlighting the importance of breed-specific nutritional management to maximize productive efficiency. While the resilience of Korean native goats remains a valuable genetic asset, their lower growth potential has prompted the adoption of crossbreeding strategies aimed at improving performance. Enhancing productivity without compromising adaptability requires integrated approaches that combine optimized feeding systems, structured crossbreeding programs and conservation of indigenous genetic resources (Anneke et al., 2025). These considerations further emphasize the necessity of evaluating how breed-related genetic potential interacts with other biological factors, particularly sex, in shaping growth responses and body development.
       
Closely linked to breed effects, gender is another major biological factor affecting growth and structural traits in goats. Sexual dimorphism in small ruminants is well documented, with males generally exhibiting greater body weight, body length, chest girth and overall skeletal development compared with females due to differences in hormonal regulation and muscle accretion patterns (Arsoy et al., 2024; Kitila et al., 2025). However, in some indigenous or small-sized breeds, females may exhibit comparable or even superior body dimensions under certain management systems, particularly when selection emphasizes reproductive performance (Alphonsus et al., 2020; Pagala et al., 2023). These sex-related differences interact with breed characteristics, thereby influencing how animals respond to nutritional interventions.
       
Beyond genetic factors, forage source and dietary composition represent critical non-genetic determinants of growth and feed efficiency. Nutritional management is fundamental to maximizing the genetic potential of both native and crossbred goats. Feeding nutrient-dense diets at appropriate forage-to-concentrate ratios enhances rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, dry matter intake and growth rate (Huang et al., 2024). Conversely, suboptimal feeding levels or poor-quality forage can limit growth and compromise structural development, particularly in young growing animals (Fasae et al., 2010; Ghani et al., 2017). Therefore, evaluating both forage type and feeding level is essential for designing efficient feeding systems.
       
Among potential forage resources, barnyard millet hay has gained attention as a locally available and sustainable feed resource with promising nutritional value, although its utilization in goat diets remains underexplored (Renganathan et al., 2020). In comparison, Bermuda hay is widely used in ruminant feeding systems due to its established digestibility, palatability and contribution to stable intake patterns (José et al., 2017).
       
Structural traits including body weight, body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth are reliable indicators of growth and body development in goats (Baker et al., 2023). These traits are influenced by both genetic factors and environmental factors, particularly nutrition and management practices (Muayad et al., 2016; Ta et al., 2019). Chest girth, in particular, is strongly correlated with body weight and is frequently used as a practical indicator of growth and productivity in small ruminants (Dereje et al., 2019). Despite existing studies examining breed differences or dietary effects independently, limited research has evaluated the combined influence of breed, gender, forage source and feeding level on growth and morphology in Korean goats. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of breed, gender, forage source and forage-to-concentrate ratio on growth performance and structural traits in growing goats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals and experimental design
 
Sixteen growing goats were used, comprising eight Korean native goats (four females, four males; 13.3±1.2 kg) and eight crossbred goats (four females, four males; 21.9±1.3 kg), approximately 3 months old at the start. A replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design was employed over a 5-month feeding period. Animals were stratified into four groups by breed and gender, each serving as one Latin square replicate. Four dietary treatments were evaluated: LF1 (low forage, barnyard millet hay), LF2 (low forage, Bermuda hay), HF1 (high forage, barnyard millet hay) and HF2 (high forage, Bermuda hay). Each period lasted approximately 5 weeks. Goats were housed individually in iron pens (1.2 × 0.9 m). All procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (Protocol No. 2023-597).
 
Feeding management and diet composition
 
Goats were fed individually twice daily (09:00 and 17:00), with feed refusals recorded to calculate daily dry matter intake (DMI). Water was available ad libitum. Weighing was conducted at the start of the experiment and weekly thereafter, before morning feeding. Diets were formulated at forage-to-concentrate ratios of 50:50 (low forage; 3.0% BW) and 60:40 (high forage; 3.5% BW). A commercial concentrate (Heungseong Feed Co. Ltd., Ansan, Republic of Korea) was used. Chemical composition of experimental diets is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Nutrient composition of experimental diets (%, DM Basis).


 
Performance and structural measurements
 
Growth performance variables included initial and final body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), DMI, average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Structural traits such as body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (Fig 1) were measured at the end of each period following Lee et al. (2025).

Fig 1: Structural traits assessment in goat such as: (1) chest width, (2) shoulder height, (3) body length and (4) chest girth.


 
Chemical analysis and statistics
 
Feed samples were oven-dried at 65°C for 48 h and ground to pass through a 0.9 mm screen. DM, crude protein (Kjeldahl), ash, ether extract (ANKOM XT15), NDF and ADF (ANKOM A2000i) were determined following AOAC (2003) and Van Soest et al. (1991). Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Female and male goats were analyzed separately. Fixed effects included breed, diet and their interaction; animal and period were random effects. Least squares means were separated using Tukey-Kramer adjustment and results are presented as means with the standard error of the mean. Significance was declared at p<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of forage source within low-and high-forage diets on growth performance in female goats
 
The average initial and final BW of Korean native and crossbred female goats were 10.6 kg and 16.0 kg, respectively, indicating an overall growth advantage for crossbred animals (Table 2). This aligns with previous reports showing that crossbred goats generally outperform native breeds due to superior genetic growth potential (Lee et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2021). Under low-forage diets (LF1 and LF2), crossbred females exhibited greater BWG (2.5 and 1.8 kg) and ADG (70.7 and 50.7 g/d) compared with native females (0.9 and 1.2 kg BWG; 25.3 and 34.3 g/d ADG). Although there were no significant differences in ADG between forage types within breeds (p>0.05), significant effects of diet and diet × breed interaction were observed (p<0.05). These findings are consistent with some studies (Ahmed et al., 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2009), while others reported no significant differences in ADG across dietary treatments (Choi et al., 2007). Dry matter intake was markedly higher in crossbred goats (697.9 and 491.8 g/d) than in native goats (289.2 and 362.8 g/d), confirming a strong breed effect on feed consumption (p<0.001). At high-forage diets (HF1 and HF2), both BWG and ADG improved, particularly in crossbred females under HF2 (3.6 kg BWG and 102.9 g/d ADG). Increased intake at higher feeding levels is consistent with (Wu et al., 2023; Luthfi et al., 2024).

Table 2: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on growth performance of female goats.


                         
Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on growth performance in male goats
 
Crossbred male goats also showed superior growth performance compared with native males (Table 3). Under low-forage diets, crossbred males achieved greater BWG (3.8 and 3.0 kg) and ADG (109.3 and 86.4 g/d) than native males (1.4 and 2.2 kg BWG; 39.7 and 63.6 g/d ADG). DMI was higher in crossbred males (674.6 and 738.5 g/d) than in native males (419.3 and 524.6 g/d). These results support previous findings that crossbred goats have greater feed intake capacity and growth efficiency than native breeds (Shi et al., 2024; Suong et al., 2022). At high-forage diets, growth performance further improved in crossbred males under HF2, which produced the highest BWG (4.4 kg), ADG (124.2 g/d) and DMI (979.6 g/d). Significant breed × diet interactions were observed for BWG and ADG (p<0.05). Native males showed improved DMI under HF2, but their ADG declined relative to HF1. Across both genders, crossbred goats consistently exhibited higher DMI, BWG and ADG than native goats, highlighting the strong influence of genetic background on growth efficiency (Brand et al., 2020; Alphonsus et al., 2020). Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits of native and crossbred female goats. Crossbred females exhibited significantly larger body dimensions than native females under low-forage diets, with significant breed effects on body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (p<0.05). Significant breed × diet interactions were also observed (p<0.05). At high-forage diets, structural traits improved in both breeds, although crossbred females maintained relatively larger measurements. These morphological advantages are consistent with (Mellado et al., 2007; Das et al., 2015; Selvam et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2024).

Table 3: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on growth performance of male goats.


 
Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits in female goats
 
Crossbred females exhibited significantly larger body dimensions than native goats under low-forage diets. Breed effects were significant for body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (p<0.05). Significant breed × diet interactions (p<0.05) indicated that the response of morphometric traits to forage source differed between breeds. Body length ranged from 60.8 to 55.1 cm in crossbred goats compared with 46.4 to 47.2 cm in native goats. Similarly, shoulder height (53.6 and 51.0 cm vs. 41.9 and 45.6 cm), chest width (17.9 and 16.3 cm vs. 9.9 and 11.5 cm) and chest girth (71.4 and 64.0 cm vs. 50.0 and 58.0 cm) were markedly higher in crossbred females than in native counterparts (Table 4). At high-forage diets (HF1 and HF2), structural traits improved in both breeds. Native females showed increases in body length (48.4 and 53.5 cm), shoulder height (42.2 and 45.2 cm), chest width (11.8 and 13.5 cm) and chest girth (53.1 and 56.5 cm). Crossbred females maintained relatively larger body dimensions, particularly in chest girth (61.0 and 70.3 cm), although breed differences were reduced under HF2 (p<0.05). These findings are consistent with prior reports linking crossbreeding to superior body conformation and skeletal growth (Kamatara et al., 2014; Das et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2019). Since chest girth is strongly correlated with body weight (Dereje et al., 2019), the larger measurements in crossbred goats likely reflect their superior growth performance. Interestingly, under HF2, native and crossbred goats showed relatively comparable chest girths, suggesting that improved forage quality can partially offset genetic differences, as noted by Choi et al. (2007).

Table 4: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on the structural traits of female goats.


 
Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits in male goats
 
Under low-forage diets, crossbred males exhibited markedly greater body length (61.2 and 66.5 cm) than native males (51.5 and 57.1 cm). Similar trends were observed for shoulder height (53.9 and 60.6 cm vs. 47.4 and 49.8 cm), chest width (18.0 and 19.5 cm vs. 12.9 and 14.1 cm) and chest girth (76.0 and 78.4 cm vs. 57.3 and 66.5 cm) (Table 5). Under high-forage diets, native males showed improvements in body length (57.5 and 61.8 cm) and shoulder height (47.3 and 54.8 cm). Crossbred males maintained generally larger measurements, particularly chest girth (80.9 cm under HF2). However, under HF1, some traits such as body length and chest girth were comparable between breeds, confirming a significant forage type × breed interaction (p<0.05). These findings confirm that breed significantly influences structural traits, as reported by Selvam et al. (2021). The larger body dimensions in crossbred males are consistent with Kamatara et al., (2014) and Lee et al., (2019), who attributed improved morphometric traits to heterosis effects. Feeding level also played a critical role, supporting Huang et al., (2024). Sex-related differences are well documented in goats, with males generally exhibiting larger body size and chest girth than females (Arsoy et al., 2024; Kitila et al., 2025). However, some indigenous breeds may show comparable or even larger female body dimensions depending on selection emphasis (Alphonsus et al., 2020; Pagala et al., 2023).

Table 5: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on the structural traits of male goats.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that genetic background and dietary management jointly determine growth performance and structural development in growing goats. Crossbred goats demonstrated consistently superior growth performance and structural development compared with Korean native goats across forage sources and feeding levels. Under low-forage diets, LF1 promoted stronger growth responses and enhanced body development in both genders compared with LF2. Conversely, within high-forage diets, HF2 produced greater improvements in growth performance and structural traits than HF1, indicating that forage source becomes increasingly influential as forage inclusion rises. These findings reveal clear breed- and gender-dependent responses to forage type and forage-to-concentrate ratio, emphasizing the necessity of precision feeding strategies tailored to genetic background and gender. Optimizing forage source within appropriate dietary ratios can enhance growth efficiency and skeletal development, thereby improving productivity and sustainability in Korean goat production systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was carried out with the support of the “Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science and Technology Development (Project No. RS-2025-02303124)” Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea; This study was supported by the 2026 RDA Fellowship Program of National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests in this research.

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    Full Research Article

    Effects of Breed, Gender and Forage Source within Different Forage-to-Concentrate Ratios on Growth Performance and Structural Traits of Growing Goats

    K
    Kwan-Woo Kim1
    E
    Eun-Do Lee1
    H
    Hyo Jin Kim1
    S
    Sung June Byun1
    B
    Byamungu Mayange Tomple1,*
    1Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, 50000, Hamyang, Republic of Korea.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Breed type, gender and feeding strategies are major determinants of growth performance and body development in goats. However, limited information is available on how forage source within different forage-to-concentrate ratios influences growth and structural traits of Korean native and crossbred goats of both gender.

    Methods: Sixteen growing goats comprising Korean native (13.3±1.2 kg) and crossbred (21.9±1.3 kg) animals were evaluated in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with four dietary treatments differing in forage source and forage-to-concentrate ratio. The diets consisted of barnyard millet hay or Bermuda hay provided at low-forage (50:50) or high-forage (60:40) forage-to-concentrate ratios, designated as LF1, LF2, HF1 and HF2. Goats received each treatment across experimental periods during a 5-month feeding trial.

    Result: Crossbred goats consistently showed superior growth compared with native goats across dietary treatments. Under low-forage diets, crossbred female goats fed LF1 exhibited higher body weight gain (BWG; 2.5 vs. 1.2 kg), dry matter intake (697.9 vs. 362.8 g/day) and average daily gain (ADG; 70.7 vs. 34.3 g/day) than native goats. Under high-forage diets, HF2 produced the greatest performance in crossbred females, with BWG of 3.6 kg and ADG of 102.9 g/day. Similar trends were observed in males, where crossbred goats showed significantly greater BWG and ADG across diets. Structural traits followed comparable patterns, with crossbred goats displaying larger body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth compared with native goats. Within feeding levels, goats fed LF1 diet under low-forage conditions and HF2 diet under high-forage conditions generally demonstrated superior structural development in both females and males.

    INTRODUCTION

    Goats (Capra hircus) are among the earliest domesticated livestock species and contribute substantially to global agriculture through meat, milk and fiber production. Among the factors affecting productivity, breed represents a primary genetic determinant of growth potential, body conformation and feed utilization efficiency. Korean native goats have inhabited the Korean Peninsula for nearly 2,000 years and are widely recognized for their adaptability, disease resistance and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions, despite their comparatively smaller body size and lower productivity (Kim et al., 2014). In contrast, Korean crossbred goats have been developed to enhance production efficiency and are characterized by faster growth rates, larger body dimensions and improved milk yield (Lee et al., 2016). Such genetic differences significantly influence growth and structural development, highlighting the importance of breed-specific nutritional management to maximize productive efficiency. While the resilience of Korean native goats remains a valuable genetic asset, their lower growth potential has prompted the adoption of crossbreeding strategies aimed at improving performance. Enhancing productivity without compromising adaptability requires integrated approaches that combine optimized feeding systems, structured crossbreeding programs and conservation of indigenous genetic resources (Anneke et al., 2025). These considerations further emphasize the necessity of evaluating how breed-related genetic potential interacts with other biological factors, particularly sex, in shaping growth responses and body development.
           
    Closely linked to breed effects, gender is another major biological factor affecting growth and structural traits in goats. Sexual dimorphism in small ruminants is well documented, with males generally exhibiting greater body weight, body length, chest girth and overall skeletal development compared with females due to differences in hormonal regulation and muscle accretion patterns (Arsoy et al., 2024; Kitila et al., 2025). However, in some indigenous or small-sized breeds, females may exhibit comparable or even superior body dimensions under certain management systems, particularly when selection emphasizes reproductive performance (Alphonsus et al., 2020; Pagala et al., 2023). These sex-related differences interact with breed characteristics, thereby influencing how animals respond to nutritional interventions.
           
    Beyond genetic factors, forage source and dietary composition represent critical non-genetic determinants of growth and feed efficiency. Nutritional management is fundamental to maximizing the genetic potential of both native and crossbred goats. Feeding nutrient-dense diets at appropriate forage-to-concentrate ratios enhances rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, dry matter intake and growth rate (Huang et al., 2024). Conversely, suboptimal feeding levels or poor-quality forage can limit growth and compromise structural development, particularly in young growing animals (Fasae et al., 2010; Ghani et al., 2017). Therefore, evaluating both forage type and feeding level is essential for designing efficient feeding systems.
           
    Among potential forage resources, barnyard millet hay has gained attention as a locally available and sustainable feed resource with promising nutritional value, although its utilization in goat diets remains underexplored (Renganathan et al., 2020). In comparison, Bermuda hay is widely used in ruminant feeding systems due to its established digestibility, palatability and contribution to stable intake patterns (José et al., 2017).
           
    Structural traits including body weight, body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth are reliable indicators of growth and body development in goats (Baker et al., 2023). These traits are influenced by both genetic factors and environmental factors, particularly nutrition and management practices (Muayad et al., 2016; Ta et al., 2019). Chest girth, in particular, is strongly correlated with body weight and is frequently used as a practical indicator of growth and productivity in small ruminants (Dereje et al., 2019). Despite existing studies examining breed differences or dietary effects independently, limited research has evaluated the combined influence of breed, gender, forage source and feeding level on growth and morphology in Korean goats. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of breed, gender, forage source and forage-to-concentrate ratio on growth performance and structural traits in growing goats.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Animals and experimental design
     
    Sixteen growing goats were used, comprising eight Korean native goats (four females, four males; 13.3±1.2 kg) and eight crossbred goats (four females, four males; 21.9±1.3 kg), approximately 3 months old at the start. A replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design was employed over a 5-month feeding period. Animals were stratified into four groups by breed and gender, each serving as one Latin square replicate. Four dietary treatments were evaluated: LF1 (low forage, barnyard millet hay), LF2 (low forage, Bermuda hay), HF1 (high forage, barnyard millet hay) and HF2 (high forage, Bermuda hay). Each period lasted approximately 5 weeks. Goats were housed individually in iron pens (1.2 × 0.9 m). All procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (Protocol No. 2023-597).
     
    Feeding management and diet composition
     
    Goats were fed individually twice daily (09:00 and 17:00), with feed refusals recorded to calculate daily dry matter intake (DMI). Water was available ad libitum. Weighing was conducted at the start of the experiment and weekly thereafter, before morning feeding. Diets were formulated at forage-to-concentrate ratios of 50:50 (low forage; 3.0% BW) and 60:40 (high forage; 3.5% BW). A commercial concentrate (Heungseong Feed Co. Ltd., Ansan, Republic of Korea) was used. Chemical composition of experimental diets is shown in Table 1.

    Table 1: Nutrient composition of experimental diets (%, DM Basis).


     
    Performance and structural measurements
     
    Growth performance variables included initial and final body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), DMI, average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Structural traits such as body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (Fig 1) were measured at the end of each period following Lee et al. (2025).

    Fig 1: Structural traits assessment in goat such as: (1) chest width, (2) shoulder height, (3) body length and (4) chest girth.


     
    Chemical analysis and statistics
     
    Feed samples were oven-dried at 65°C for 48 h and ground to pass through a 0.9 mm screen. DM, crude protein (Kjeldahl), ash, ether extract (ANKOM XT15), NDF and ADF (ANKOM A2000i) were determined following AOAC (2003) and Van Soest et al. (1991). Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Female and male goats were analyzed separately. Fixed effects included breed, diet and their interaction; animal and period were random effects. Least squares means were separated using Tukey-Kramer adjustment and results are presented as means with the standard error of the mean. Significance was declared at p<0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Effect of forage source within low-and high-forage diets on growth performance in female goats
     
    The average initial and final BW of Korean native and crossbred female goats were 10.6 kg and 16.0 kg, respectively, indicating an overall growth advantage for crossbred animals (Table 2). This aligns with previous reports showing that crossbred goats generally outperform native breeds due to superior genetic growth potential (Lee et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2021). Under low-forage diets (LF1 and LF2), crossbred females exhibited greater BWG (2.5 and 1.8 kg) and ADG (70.7 and 50.7 g/d) compared with native females (0.9 and 1.2 kg BWG; 25.3 and 34.3 g/d ADG). Although there were no significant differences in ADG between forage types within breeds (p>0.05), significant effects of diet and diet × breed interaction were observed (p<0.05). These findings are consistent with some studies (Ahmed et al., 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2009), while others reported no significant differences in ADG across dietary treatments (Choi et al., 2007). Dry matter intake was markedly higher in crossbred goats (697.9 and 491.8 g/d) than in native goats (289.2 and 362.8 g/d), confirming a strong breed effect on feed consumption (p<0.001). At high-forage diets (HF1 and HF2), both BWG and ADG improved, particularly in crossbred females under HF2 (3.6 kg BWG and 102.9 g/d ADG). Increased intake at higher feeding levels is consistent with (Wu et al., 2023; Luthfi et al., 2024).

    Table 2: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on growth performance of female goats.


                             
    Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on growth performance in male goats
     
    Crossbred male goats also showed superior growth performance compared with native males (Table 3). Under low-forage diets, crossbred males achieved greater BWG (3.8 and 3.0 kg) and ADG (109.3 and 86.4 g/d) than native males (1.4 and 2.2 kg BWG; 39.7 and 63.6 g/d ADG). DMI was higher in crossbred males (674.6 and 738.5 g/d) than in native males (419.3 and 524.6 g/d). These results support previous findings that crossbred goats have greater feed intake capacity and growth efficiency than native breeds (Shi et al., 2024; Suong et al., 2022). At high-forage diets, growth performance further improved in crossbred males under HF2, which produced the highest BWG (4.4 kg), ADG (124.2 g/d) and DMI (979.6 g/d). Significant breed × diet interactions were observed for BWG and ADG (p<0.05). Native males showed improved DMI under HF2, but their ADG declined relative to HF1. Across both genders, crossbred goats consistently exhibited higher DMI, BWG and ADG than native goats, highlighting the strong influence of genetic background on growth efficiency (Brand et al., 2020; Alphonsus et al., 2020). Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits of native and crossbred female goats. Crossbred females exhibited significantly larger body dimensions than native females under low-forage diets, with significant breed effects on body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (p<0.05). Significant breed × diet interactions were also observed (p<0.05). At high-forage diets, structural traits improved in both breeds, although crossbred females maintained relatively larger measurements. These morphological advantages are consistent with (Mellado et al., 2007; Das et al., 2015; Selvam et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2024).

    Table 3: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on growth performance of male goats.


     
    Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits in female goats
     
    Crossbred females exhibited significantly larger body dimensions than native goats under low-forage diets. Breed effects were significant for body length, shoulder height, chest width and chest girth (p<0.05). Significant breed × diet interactions (p<0.05) indicated that the response of morphometric traits to forage source differed between breeds. Body length ranged from 60.8 to 55.1 cm in crossbred goats compared with 46.4 to 47.2 cm in native goats. Similarly, shoulder height (53.6 and 51.0 cm vs. 41.9 and 45.6 cm), chest width (17.9 and 16.3 cm vs. 9.9 and 11.5 cm) and chest girth (71.4 and 64.0 cm vs. 50.0 and 58.0 cm) were markedly higher in crossbred females than in native counterparts (Table 4). At high-forage diets (HF1 and HF2), structural traits improved in both breeds. Native females showed increases in body length (48.4 and 53.5 cm), shoulder height (42.2 and 45.2 cm), chest width (11.8 and 13.5 cm) and chest girth (53.1 and 56.5 cm). Crossbred females maintained relatively larger body dimensions, particularly in chest girth (61.0 and 70.3 cm), although breed differences were reduced under HF2 (p<0.05). These findings are consistent with prior reports linking crossbreeding to superior body conformation and skeletal growth (Kamatara et al., 2014; Das et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2019). Since chest girth is strongly correlated with body weight (Dereje et al., 2019), the larger measurements in crossbred goats likely reflect their superior growth performance. Interestingly, under HF2, native and crossbred goats showed relatively comparable chest girths, suggesting that improved forage quality can partially offset genetic differences, as noted by Choi et al. (2007).

    Table 4: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on the structural traits of female goats.


     
    Effect of forage source within low- and high-forage diets on structural traits in male goats
     
    Under low-forage diets, crossbred males exhibited markedly greater body length (61.2 and 66.5 cm) than native males (51.5 and 57.1 cm). Similar trends were observed for shoulder height (53.9 and 60.6 cm vs. 47.4 and 49.8 cm), chest width (18.0 and 19.5 cm vs. 12.9 and 14.1 cm) and chest girth (76.0 and 78.4 cm vs. 57.3 and 66.5 cm) (Table 5). Under high-forage diets, native males showed improvements in body length (57.5 and 61.8 cm) and shoulder height (47.3 and 54.8 cm). Crossbred males maintained generally larger measurements, particularly chest girth (80.9 cm under HF2). However, under HF1, some traits such as body length and chest girth were comparable between breeds, confirming a significant forage type × breed interaction (p<0.05). These findings confirm that breed significantly influences structural traits, as reported by Selvam et al. (2021). The larger body dimensions in crossbred males are consistent with Kamatara et al., (2014) and Lee et al., (2019), who attributed improved morphometric traits to heterosis effects. Feeding level also played a critical role, supporting Huang et al., (2024). Sex-related differences are well documented in goats, with males generally exhibiting larger body size and chest girth than females (Arsoy et al., 2024; Kitila et al., 2025). However, some indigenous breeds may show comparable or even larger female body dimensions depending on selection emphasis (Alphonsus et al., 2020; Pagala et al., 2023).

    Table 5: Effect of breed and dietary treatment on the structural traits of male goats.

    CONCLUSION

    The present study demonstrated that genetic background and dietary management jointly determine growth performance and structural development in growing goats. Crossbred goats demonstrated consistently superior growth performance and structural development compared with Korean native goats across forage sources and feeding levels. Under low-forage diets, LF1 promoted stronger growth responses and enhanced body development in both genders compared with LF2. Conversely, within high-forage diets, HF2 produced greater improvements in growth performance and structural traits than HF1, indicating that forage source becomes increasingly influential as forage inclusion rises. These findings reveal clear breed- and gender-dependent responses to forage type and forage-to-concentrate ratio, emphasizing the necessity of precision feeding strategies tailored to genetic background and gender. Optimizing forage source within appropriate dietary ratios can enhance growth efficiency and skeletal development, thereby improving productivity and sustainability in Korean goat production systems.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    This work was carried out with the support of the “Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science and Technology Development (Project No. RS-2025-02303124)” Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea; This study was supported by the 2026 RDA Fellowship Program of National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests in this research.

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