Climate change has been created a significant challenge for the sustainable agriculture system in the world. Crop and livestock systems are being directly impacted by rising global temperatures, atmospheric CO₂ levels, unpredictable rainfall, extended droughts and frequent extreme weather events. Rural livelihoods, agricultural GDP and  the livestock sector, which is a major source of nutrition in the world. As population pressure rises, more land is allocated to food and cash crop cultivation, leaving limited arable land for fodder production. This highlights the importance of focusing on fodder production in modern agriculture. To meet the high demand for fodder, excessive and continuous application of large quantities of high-analysis chemical fertilizers has had detrimental effects, resulting in decreased productivity due to nutrient limitations. Consequently, it faces major difficulties in optimizing the use of available land to produce adequate and high-quality animal feed. Hence, to address the critical gap in crude protein and total digestible nutrients (TDN) availability in India. Rangasami et al. (2024) As per statement of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), livestock systems contribute around 40 per cent of world agricultural production and help to subsist more than one billion people in the world. Nevertheless, the health of animals, their reproductive performance and  overall production levels are at risk due to the impact of climate-related stressors, including heat stress, water shortages and  decreased pasture productivity (FAO, 2013; IPCC, 2022). Many areas, especially arid and semi-arid ones are already experiencing the effects of the climate change that is making the rangelands and forage crops less productive. Heat stress lowers the feed consumption, disturbs the metabolic processes and  predisposes livestock to diseases, thus lowering the milk production, growth rates and  reproductive activities (IPCC, 2022). This has been made the creation of resilient feed and forage systems the focus of climate adaptation strategies in animal agriculture. The nutritional basis of ruminant livestock production is comprised of forage systems. Natural pastures, cultivated fodder crops, forage legumes, shrubs and silvopastoral systems are important sources of nutrients needed to maintain, grow, reproduce and  lactate. In most developing regions, up to 70-80% of the total feed intake in ruminant diets is forages (FAO, 2018). Sustainable forage production does not only decrease the usage of expensive concentrate feeds but also improves soil fertility, carbon sequestration and  ecosystems resiliency. Forage systems resistant to climate that are typified by drought-tolerant species, deep-rooted perennials, pastures with mixed species and  integrated crop livestock strategies are very important in maintaining the feed supply in the fluctuating climatic conditions. The studies show that diversified and adaptive forage systems are able to amortize the production losses in the cases of extreme weather and preserve soil health and biodiversity (Thornton et al., 2009; Dumont et al., 2015. Nutrient availability and metabolic efficiency are determined by parameters like the crude protein content, fiber fractions (NDF and ADF), mineral composition, digestibility and the presence of bioactive compounds. Good-quality forages are beneficial because they make the rumen more efficient, boost the immunity, reproductive efficiency and yield of milk and meat. On the other hand, malnutrition, metabolic diseases, impaired immune system and  decreased productivity are possible outcomes of low-quality forage (Van Soest, 1994; McDonald et al., 2011). The better quality of forage is not only beneficial to the health of animals, but also to the nutritional content of animal food. Nutritionally balanced forage diets yield milk and meat with better fatty acid profile, increased micronutrient density and  overall quality. Therefore, animal-based food is vital in food and nutritional security because climate-resilient and nutrient-dense forage systems help provide protein and key micronutrients in animal-source food in the areas where they are essential (FAO, 2019). Livestock can play a vital role in improving the lives of millions by providing the sufficient and reliable supplies of meat, milk, eggs and dairy products, diversifying food basket with animal-source foods; helping to generate income and creating employment and strengthening the rural household assets thus improving the livelihood. Pampori and Sheikh, (2023). Maintaining a good supply and quality of forage under adverse climatic conditions is thus essential in supporting the health and human food of the livestock. The purpose of this review is to present a synthesis of the current knowledge on climate-resilient forage systems and how they contribute to improving livestock health and nutritional security. The climate resilient forage systems, therefore, play a crucial role in ensuring the livestock productivity and human nutritional security in the face of increased global temperatures. These systems incorporate certain species of plants and management methods to supply high-quality feed when there is a drought and in extreme weather conditions. This review shows the implication of resilient forage systems which reinforce livestock production systems and create a long-term sustainable system followed by climate variability with combination of agronomic, environmental and nutritional thinking. This article addresses a critical knowledge gap by bridging these isolated domains into a unified framework. It provide a mechanistic synthesis of how climate-induced biochemical alterations in forages directly influence livestock gut health, immunity and  the ultimate nutritional density (proteins, micronutrients and  fatty acid profiles) of meat and dairy products.
 
Review design and literature survey
 
This review is a systematic approach to identify, assess and  synthesize scientific literature related to climate-resilient forage systems and their role in enhancing livestock health and nutritional security. It aims to compile the current knowledge on resilient forage characteristics, adaptive management strategies, ecosystem interactions and  their implications for sustainable livestock production under changing climatic conditions (Table 1 and Table 2).




 
Research gap identified
 
A research gap analysis identifies a radical gap between how common climate adaptation practices are applied and how they work in practice in livestock production systems. Existing research can find drought-tolerant plant species and generally fails to address the direct effect of climate-stressed plants on the digestion of animals, their metabolic balance and the production of food chains over a longer period of time.
 
Progress on climate resilient forage systems
 
The current baseline for climate-smart livestock nutrition is largely based on changing less resilient, water-intensive crops to alternatives that are more resilient (Fushai et al., 2025).
 
Drought-tolerant cultivars
 
Agronomic attention is given to small cereal grains, e.g., sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and native legumes such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) as alternatives to conventional energy and protein feeds (Fushai et al., 2025).
 
Circular and alternative feedstocks
 
 There is growing focus on circular agricultural systems that utilise agro-industrial byproducts such as macadamia, castor and Jatropha oilseed cakes and  alternative proteins such as Black Soldier Fly larvae (Fushai et al., 2025).
 
Thermo-functional supplementation
 
Presently, precision nutrition models are based on dietary strategies, including electrolyte and antioxidant supplementation, to support livestock’s internal acid-base equilibrium and oxidative cell damage caused by heat stress (Fushai et al., 2025).
 
Critical research gaps
 
In spite of these advances, evidence of how climate-resilient forage production can impact livestock health and nutrition security is sparse.
 
Gap A: Nutritional dilution under elevated Co₂ and thermal stress
 
Some forage species can withstand severe environmental conditions, but their nutritional quality decreases. An increase in CO₂ in the atmosphere effects the internal composition of the plant, which results in significant decreases of key proteins, iron and zinc levels (Session, 2026). Furthermore, climate change-induced changes accelerate the process of lignification, the build-up of fiber and lignin (Hossein-Zadeh, 2026). This means a very intricate balancing act:

 
Highly lignified forage, which is very fibrous, has a slow rate of rumen fermentation and  unavoidably causes increased enteric methane emissions and thus lower net energy intake (Hossein-Zadeh, 2026).
 
Gap B: Toxicological and food safety vulnerabilities
 
Changes in precipitation and temperature provide a breeding ground for environmental pathogens. In particular, toxigenic fungi can multiply quickly because of warm conditions, which can result in significant feed contamination with mycotoxins during storage (Session, 2026). Current forage research does not trace the geographical range expansion of toxic weeds, crop diseases and pests as a result of changing climate, which is directly impacting livestock health and export food safety standards (Alotaibi, 2023; Session, 2026).
 
Gap C: Disarticulated technological and institutional scaling
 
There is a significant gap between the laboratory scale multi-omics and/or AI based phenotyping and the application in the field by smallholders (Thingujam et al., 2025). Vulnerable farming communities are not well protected by current local support systems that offer access to affordable networks of seed distribution and precision data tools, which can withstand rapid climate disruptions (Mmbando, 2025).
 
Comparative synthesis
 
The following table highlights key differences between the current agriculture emphasis and the research gaps identified that constrain long-term nutrition security (Table 3).


 
Methodology and key concepts
 
Climate change and its impact on forage production
 
The effect of climate change is causing substantial change in the productivity, distribution and nutritional content of forage resources across the globe. Temperature and precipitation changes, atmospheric CO₂ levels and  the occurrence of extreme climatic conditions have a direct impact on the plant growth, species make up, soil well-being and  persistence of pastures. As the major feed base of the ruminant livestock, these effects are critical in the development of climate resilience in forage systems (IPCC, 2022; FAO, 2013). Climate-resilient forage systems combine better forage species and cultivars, adaptive management systems and  ecosystem-based systems to absorb climatic shocks and not compromise livestock nutritional adequacy. The objective of these systems is not only to sustain the production of biomasses under stress but to retain or even improve the levels of crude proteins and digestibility and energy value, which are frequently lost by heat and water stress (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015; Ergon and others, 2018). In recent reviews, the focus on diversification of species (especially integration of legumes), genetic enhancement to increase stress tolerance, soil health improvement and  effective use of water is highlighted as the base principles (FAO, 2018; Lemaire et al., 2019).
       
The representation of climate change and its impact on forage production are given as follows (Fig 1).


 
(a) Temperature rise
 
Increasing global temperatures influence the dynamics of forage growth, phenology and productivity. Raising temperatures by moderate amounts could increase photosynthesis and lengthening growing seasons in cooler areas; but excess heat stress tends to lower biomass production, hasten plant maturation and decrease vegetative growth periods. Increased temperature causes more rapid rates of plant respiration that lowers net carbon gain and forage yield (Hatfield et al., 2011). Cool-season (C₃) grasses are more susceptible to heat stress than warm-season (C₄) species and  may change the composition of pasture species. Based on the report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022) warming patterns will cause agro ecological zones to shift, affecting the appropriateness of forage species in different locations. Also, higher temperature may decrease the level of crude proteins and increase the lignification process, thus lowering the level of digestibility and general quality of feed (Dumont et al., 2015).
 
(b) Altered rainfall patterns and drought stress
 
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2013), drought has been among the biggest limitations to forage production in the arid and semi-arid areas. Nutrient uptake suffers as well due to water inadequacy and results in a decrease in protein content and mineral imbalance of forage crops. Habitual droughts can prefer drought-resistant yet lower-quality species leading to reduced nutritive value of the total pasture (Thornton et al., 2009). This has resulted in seasonal shortages of feed, loss of weight and decreased productivity of livestock that rely on natural pasture.
 
(c) Elevated CO₂ and forage nutritional quality
 
Increased levels of atmospheric CO₂ will have the potential to enhance photosynthesis, especially in C₃ and  thus CO₂ fertilization effect may boost forage biomass production. Nevertheless, biomass can rise, although in the process, the nutritional qualities of forage can tend to decrease under high CO₂ situations. Research shows that the concentration of crude protein, the amount of nitrogen and essential minerals like zinc and iron reduce under a dilution effect (Myers et al., 2014). Higher CO₂ can promote non-structural carbohydrate storage and decrease digestibility by altering fiber composition. Dumont et al., (2015) further propose that scenarios of climate change with high CO₂ and high temperatures are expected to reduce the protein content of forage and raise fiber levels, thus reducing the efficiency of feed. These nutritional changes may cause adverse changes in rumen activity, growth rate of animals as well as milk production, which eventually influences the well-being of livestock and food quality.
 
(d) Extreme weather events and pasture degradation
 
The rising rate and severity of extreme weather conditions such as floods, heat waves, storms and  wildfires have significant threats to the pasture ecosystems. Waterlogging, destruction of roots, loss of nutrients and soil erosion may occur due to flooding and  extended heatwaves will increase evapotranspiration and desiccation of plants. Wildfires, which become more and more associated with climate change, destroy pasture biomass and decrease vegetation cover, triggering soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. IPCC (2022) highlights that repeated extreme events decrease resilience and recovery of pastures in susceptible areas, which increase the speed of land degradation and desertification. In addition to reducing forage yield, pasture degradation reduces soil organic matter and potential to sequester carbon, which exacerbates climate vulnerability. The long-term degradation may change the composition of plant species, promote invasive species and  decrease the ecosystem services needed to sustain livestock production.
 
Framework concept
 
The conceptual framework is framed in three pillars of resilience are represented below:
       
This framework is consistent with the principles of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) that is geared towards the sustainable growth of productivity, greater resilience and  minimizing greenhouse gas emissions wherever feasible (FAO, 2013). This in forage systems includes choosing the stress-resistant species, diversifying pasture mixes, using legumes to increase nitrogen fixation and  employing conservation strategies that enhance the store of soil carbon and water retention (Lemaire et al., 2019). Climate-resilient forage species have the following traits: Climate-resilient forage species also have morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics that make them tolerant to abiotic and biotic stresses without compromising nutritional quality (Fig 2).


 
Key traits include
 
A. Large and deep root system to enhance water and nutrient uptake during drought conditions. Effective water-use efficiency (WUE) and osmotic adjustment. Heat tolerance, including steady photosynthetic enzymes and  membrane integrity at high temperatures.
B. Quick recovery and survival following grazing or climate stress.
C. Maintained or improved nutritive quality, such as crude protein and stress-induced digestibility.
       
Leguminous forages tend to be more resilient because of the biological fixation of nitrogen and a relatively high level of crude protein that keeps the quality of forages intact despite stress (Ergon et al., 2018; Lüscher et al., 2014). Equally, the warm-season C₄ grasses are more resistant to heat and drought than most temperate C₃ species (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015). Combined traits, including stress tolerance, resistance to disease and  better fiber digestibility, are becoming a target of breeding programs to guarantee productivity and feed value (Rogers et al., 2021).
 
Different strategies adopted for climate resilient forage systems
 
From recent scientific literature, it is a clear indication that climate resilient forage systems are at a crossroads of agricultural science. They can be used in one and the same way as an adaptive barrier and as a mitigating measure for regulating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the livestock sector. Few strategies suggested here.
 
Climate-resilient forage systems incorporate both adaptive and mitigative strategies
 
Adaptive strategies aim at modulating production of forage to deal with climate variability. These include:
• Planting of drought and heat-tolerant forage species and cultivars.
• Diversification of pasture mixtures (grass-legume systems).
• Changing sowing dates, rotating grazing and better water management.
• Adoption of silvopastoral systems to stabilize temperatures.
• The main goal of these measures is to stabilize nutritive value and yield in the face of stress (Dumont et al., 2015; FAO, 2018).
       
The company carries out structural and technical changes. The company implements changes to the structure and technology.
 
(i) Integrated Crop-livestock systems (IFS)
 
 Dynamic integration of forage production with arable crops helps to buffer against shocks in the system including crop residues, green manuring, contingency cropping. There are recent case studies of island and tropical smallholder systems which show that IFS improves farm climate-readiness.
 
(ii) Silvopastorism
 
The introduction of trees in the forage area (silvopasture) can help to control the ambient temperature for forage crop and livestock. This helps to reduce heat stress in cattle and maintain adequate moisture levels in pasture.
 
(iii)  Water-smart infrastructure
 
In-situ rain water harvesting, introduction of special drainage systems (such as raised-bed furrows) and strategic management of forage harvesting during season reduces the risk of yield gaps during dry periods.

Mitigation strategies: Making forage a carbon sink
 
(i) Below-ground biomass allocation
 
Pastures and rangelands naturally have a higher below-ground biomass allocation than harvested croplands. Recent research has shown that rangelands are able to take up a significant share of emissions from the annual global emissions.
 
(ii) Minimizing Emissions of Enteric Methane ($CH_4$) and Nitrous Oxide ($N_2O$)
 
Poor quality forage leads to longer fermentation times in ruminants and causes increased CH4 output. This significantly lowers the amount of methane released for every litre of milk or pound of meat produced.
 
(ii)  Nutrient and crop residue recycling
 
Use of nitrogen-fixing forage legumes, rather than heavy synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, reduces the amount of $N_2O$ released at the field level.
 
Synergies and trade-offs (The Dynamic Balance)
 
There is a growing emphasis in the literature on the need for both adaptation and mitigation to be used in combination to prevent maladaptation.
 
The major barrier
 
These two adaptation-mitigation approaches are not yet on the ground without coordinated regional policy mixes, adequate climate finance and solid extension support. (Table 4).


 
Relationship between forage nutritional composition and livestock health outcomes
 
The most important factor to maintain the optimum health, growth, reproduction and lactation of animals is adequate forage nutrition directly affecting global food security (Rangasami et al., 2024). Nutritional value of forage, including fiber content, digestibility and nutrient bioavailability, is a decisive factor of ruminant physiological health and productive efficiency (Xiao and Meng, 2024). In particular, the complex proportions of the macronutrients (i.e., crude protein and degradable carbohydrates) and micronutrients in forages determine the rumen microbial activity and further nutrient usage, which directly affects animal performance and health outcomes (Darwin et al., 2023). On the other hand, the lack of or unequal quality of forage may trigger slowed growth, reduced productivity, increased vulnerability to diseases and  significant economic losses (Rangasami et al., 2024). As an example, a higher concentration of acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber, which are signs of a greater amount of indigestible elements, is associated with decreased digestible energy and intake capability, respectively, which leads to inability to absorb nutrients and overall animal activity (Adepoju and Faniyi, 2025). Moreover, the mode of cultivation also plays an important role in determining the quality of fodders and  hydroponically grown forages tend to have a higher crude protein and lipid content than their conventionally grown counterparts, which may benefit animal health and productivity (Islam et al., 2024). As an example, the hydroponic wheat seeds have a crude protein level of 15.83 on a dry matter basis and a crude fat level of 4.74 on a dry matter basis with a low lignin level of 2.3, which leads to high digestibility (Tuo et al., 2025). This improved nutritional composition especially the increased levels of protein and fat and the decreased levels of lignin, help to increase nutrient absorption and energy use in livestock (Tuo et al., 2025).
 
Role of forage systems in enhancing livestock health
 
The climate-resilient forage systems do not only ensure the availability of feed during the fluctuating weather conditions; but are also important in enhancing the health of livestock, their immune systems, reproductive effectiveness, growth rate, as well as environmental sustainability. Quality forage supplements key nutrients, bioactive compounds and dietary fiber that impact physiological functions, disease resistance and productivity in livestock.
 
Immunity and disease resistance
 
The quality of the forage has a direct effect on immune competence in ruminants due to its direct effects on the balance of macro and micronutrients necessary to support immune system functions. Antioxidant defences, antibody production and  resistance to pathogens are promoted by high-quality forages that contain a lot of crude protein, vitamins (A, E), trace minerals (selenium, zinc) and bioactive plant compounds. Studies have shown that animals grazing on high nutritional value pastures have high leukocyte activity and parasitic infections are less common than when on low quality forages or on concentrates only diets (Patra et al., 2025). It has been linked with leguminous forage (e.g., clovers, lucerne) that have been linked to higher serum protein and essential amino acid supply, which form the basis of immune response metabolic pathways. Moreover, some forages contain phytochemicals with anthelmintic activity (e.g., condensed tannins in birds foot trefoil), which may help to reduce internal parasite loads, providing a natural means to increase disease resistance without the use of chemical dewormers (Min et al., 2024).
 
Reproductive performance
 
The nutritional status of livestock is extremely sensitive to their reproductive efficiency, particularly at critical stages of reproduction (conception, early gestation and lactation). Balanced energy and protein forages are useful in sustaining ovarian activity, conception rates and early embryonic growth. Research indicates that cows that graze pastures rich in nutrients have greater pregnancy rates and reduced gestation periods between calving and conception compared to cows receiving low-quality roughages (Fernandez et al., 2023). In addition, the micronutrients like selenium, vitamin E and essential fatty acids in the various pasture systems help in enhancing the gamete quality and antioxidant defence of the reproductive tissues. Multi-species swards are associated with better body condition score and hormonal profiles that facilitate successful reproduction (Singh et al., 2024).
 
Growth and productivity
 
The performance of the livestock is directly proportional to the forage digestibility, crude protein, metabolizable energy and palatability. Forage grasses resistant to climate and having enhanced fiber composition (reduced neutral detergent fiber [NDF] and increased digestible energy) enhance improved feed consumption, nutrient capture resulting in enhanced average daily weight gain (ADG) in growing livestock. As an illustration, drought-tolerant sorghum hybrids and better pearl millet varieties have been found to have equivalent growth rate with more resistance to heat and water stress than the conventional grasses (Zhao et al., 2025). Moreover, when legumes, which are high-protein, are incorporated in pastures, it improves the quantity and quality of milk in dairy systems because of increased intake of nitrogen along with microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. The mixed pasture systems also decrease the use of high-cost concentrates because they enhance the quality of the basal diets. (Gomez et al., 2024).
 
Reduction in methane emissions and environmental stress
 
The forage systems not only affect the health of the animals but also the sustainability of the environment especially greenhouse gas emission. High-quality, highly digestible forage diets lower the amount of enteric methane (CH 4) per pound of animal product since nutrients are better utilized to generate energy and tissue instead of being emitted as methane during ruminal fermentation. As an illustration, legumes like alfalfa and sainfoin can lead to reduced levels of methane emissions compared to low-quality grass diets because of higher rumen passage rates and increased fermentation efficiency (Beauchemin et al., 2025). The new breeding objectives of forages include high leaf-to-stem ratio and better fiber digestibility to enhance efficient nutrient utilization and further reduce methane production. Also, forage systems that include tannin-containing species have also been shown to have a reduction in ruminal methanogenesis without the loss of feed intake. These forage-based mitigation measures help to enhance environmental performance of livestock systems and animal health and productivity (Waghorn and Hegarty, 2024).
 
Detailed process dynamics
 
To systematically operationalize the integration of climate-smart agriculture with animal and human well-being, this review proposes a multi-tiered, closed-loop framework:
 
Phase 1: Climate-adaptive agronomic initiation
 
The process begins at the soil-plant interface, where specific agronomic systems are selected based on localized climate vulnerability indices (e.g., severe prolonged drought, soil salinization, or ambient thermal spikes). To secure stable biomass yields under extreme environmental conditions where conventional $C_3$ crops fail.
 
Phase 2: Phytochemical and nutrient stabilization
 
Once the resilient forage is established, the framework focuses on the plant’s altered biochemical profiles under climate stress. To minimize $ANFs$ and optimize the structural-to-soluble carbohydrate ratio ($NDF$/$ADF$), ensuring the forage remains highly palatable and metabolically safe for consumption.
 
Phase 3: Ruminant physiological and immunological assimilation
 
This phase represents the core veterinary contribution of the framework, mapping how the stabilized feed matrix interacts with livestock biology. To mitigate animal heat stress, lower somatic cell counts, boost cellular immunity and  reduce greenhouse gas emissions ($CH_4$ per unit of meat/milk) through improved metabolic efficiency.
 
Phase 4: Human nutritional security realization
 
The final phase of the framework converts livestock physiological health into tangible public health outcomes. To prevent the nutrient dilution effect typically seen in climate-stressed livestock supply chains, ensuring the continuous delivery of nutrient-dense, functional animal-source foods to vulnerable human populations.
               
The framework insight the paradigm of Climate-Resilient Forage Systems for Enhancing Livestock Health and Nutritional Security provides researchers and policy makers with a transparent blueprint showing that safeguarding human food security under climate stress requires an initial, calculated investment in forage biochemical selection.

The key to the protection of livestock health and nutritional security in a changing climate lies in climate-resilient forage systems. The climate-resilient forage systems improve the health of livestock by:
• Enhanced immune capacity and resistance to diseases due to adequate nutrition and bioactive substances.

• Fostering growth and productivity with enhanced digestibility and nutrient density.
• Helping to sustain the environment by decreasing the amount of methane gas released and maximizing the utilization of nutrients.
       
Integrating species and functional diversity, perennial and agroforestry integration, soil- and water-oriented management and  adaptive grazing have the potential to stabilize feed availability and quality, increase animal welfare and augment ecosystem services. Adoption needs conducive policies, funding, local research and robust extension. Emphasizing resilient forage systems will help to build stronger livestock-based livelihoods and food systems as climate variability increases. These integrated advantages emphasize the direct relationship between the quality of forage and system design and the animal welfare and environmental impacts in contemporary livestock production.

I would like to acknowledge IIMT University and co-authors for their support and contribution.
 
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