Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Full Research Article

Pathological, Immunological and Molecular Epidemiological Study of Peste des Petits Virus in Goats during a High-mortality Epidemic in the Eastern Districts of Uttar Pradesh

 

D
D.P. Shrivastava1,*
D
D. Niyogi1
S
S.V. Singh2
V
V. Yadav3,*
K
K.K. Tripathi1
D
D.K. Yadav4
J
J. Yadav5
S
S.K. Yadav6
A
A.K. Singh7
1Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
2Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
3Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
4Nepal Agriculture Research Council, National Animal Science Research Institute, Khumaltar, Lalitpur Nepal.
5Department of Extension Education, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
6Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
7Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Akushpur, Ghazipur-233 302, Uttar Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious and economically important disease. Many PPR outbreaks in sheep and goats in India are unnoticed or are only partially reported because of insufficient mechanisms for animal disease surveillance and reporting.

Methods: Samples were collected at necropsy from 150 goats that died during the study period and 3 mL blood was collected from live goats suspected of respiratory disease. The samples were maintained at -80°C until use and 10% buffered formalin for histopathology. All the tissue and serum samples were processed at IVRI-Mukteswar and IVRI-Izatnagar by using ELISA, RT-PCR, histopathology and Immunohistochemistry.

Result: Seroprevalence using c-ELISA for the presence of PPRV antibodies was 88.33%, but no significant correlation in prevalence (P>0.05) was found between the different districts of the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. Microscopically, lungs contain numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies, although immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed a higher positivity rate of 45.19% (47/104) compared to RT-PCR at 27.88% (29/104). In general, IHC may be a substitute for detection in field cases due to the simplicity of sample collection and storage.

INTRODUCTION

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a transboundary viral disease of goats and sheep that is vital to report quickly and is associated with considerable morbidity (65.66%) and mortality (34.34%), according to the International Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (Diallo et al., 2007).
       
The SAARC region has incurred an average annual economic loss of $2,972.5 million due to morbidity, mortality, production losses and PPR treatment costs. India alone contributed $2569.00 million annually to this loss. India’s goat population is growing faster than its sheep population. Animal productivity, organized marketing and the control of current and emerging diseases should therefore receive substantial attention (Balamurugan et al., 2014 and Kumar et al., 2014).
       
The majority of PPR endemicity in small ruminants is related to the transmission of infection, either through close contact between healthy and ill animals or through nomadic grazing and cross-border movement of ill animals. More than 50% of the affected animals used to die from it. Almost all states have reported multiple outbreaks regularly, including Maharashtra, one of the country’s top states for sheep and goat production (Hota et al., 2018). Due to insufficient procedures for animal disease surveillance and reporting, many PPR outbreaks in sheep and goats in India go unreported or are only partially reported (Balamurugan et al., 2012). Balamurugan et al., (2020) reported 65.69% seroprevalence in small ruminants in Uttar Pradesh.
       
The clinical picture of PPR could be described by the “3 Ds,” or discharge, diarrhea and death, with a fourth component, bronchopneumonia (Bharti et al., 2025). Pyrexia, ocular-nasal discharge, oral lesions, respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea are the five specific cardinal clinical findings that comprise the PPR case definition (Balamurugan et al., 2019).
       
Because PPRV antibodies can be detected in the serum of affected sheep and goats, c-ELISA is the most frequently used serological diagnostic test for PPR. It has high sensitivity (94.5%) and specificity (99.4%) compared with virus-neutralisation assays (Singh et al., 2004). Immunohistochemical staining is the most appropriate and standard method for PPR diagnosis when PCR and other techniques are not available.
       
However, a significant number of farmers keep goats. Given their situation, the rapid outbreaks of PPR constitute a serious setback. Developing methods for early, precise diagnosis is crucial to making this goat-based economy profitable and sustainable. Therefore, this study was planned to determine the prevalence of respiratory diseases to permit the comparison of data with other epidemiological studies and provide information to government agencies to implement necessary control measures to reduce the economic losses of goat rearers and also to isolate and identify the organism to evaluate the frequency of the disease among goats in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Thus, considering the above facts and the economic importance of the Peste des petits ruminants in goats, the present study was conducted. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Postmortem examination of 150 dead goats suspected of respiratory diseases was conducted. Samples were collected in 10% formalin from goats with respiratory lesions during necropsy and 3 ml of blood was collected in clot activator vials (AV LabotÛbe) at organised and unorganised farms of the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. The samples were maintained at -80°C until use. All the tissue and serum samples were processed at IVRI-Mukteswar and IVRI-Izatnagar.
 
Methods used for PPR virus identification
 
Isolation and identification of PPR virus
 
Samples were processed at the IVRI Mukteshwar PPR laboratory and at the IVRI Izatnagar (immunohistochemistry).
 
Serological test
 
Screening of sero-surveillance and sero-monitoring of PPR antibodies in goats was performed using the PPR cELISA Kit developed at IVRI Mukteswar, which uses a monoclonal antibody directed against a neutralising epitope of the Hemagglutinin protein of PPR Virus, as per Singh et al., (2004).
 
Detection of PPR virus by using RT-PCR
 
Total RNA was isolated from the Nasal swab and tissues using TRIzolTM reagent (InvitrogenTM, ThermoFisher Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.
       
RNA in all samples was quantified using a NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (Nanotechnologies, USA). The cDNA was synthesised by reverse transcription, primed with random primers and the entire RNA was converted to cDNA according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The cDNA prepared was checked using murine housekeeping/endogenous control NP3 and NP4 gene-specific primers and 2x Dream Taq Green PCR Master Mix (Thermo Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. The amplified products were visualised on a 1.5% agarose gel (Cat No. A9539; Sigma- Aldrich, USA.
 
Pathological study
 
Gross lesions in various visceral organs such as lungs, trachea, liver and intestine were noted. Lesion in lungs and intestine were graded as per severity of disease. The tissue samples were collected in 10% formalin.
 
Microscopic pathology
 
All tissues were collected in 10% formalin and those samples positive in ELISA, for further confirmation processed for histopathological examination according to standard procedures. The cut sections were stained with the Haematoxylin and Eosin (HE) method as per the procedure of Luna (1968).
 
Immunohistochemistry
 
For immunohistochemical analysis, poly-L-lysine-coated slides were prepared and tissue sections were mounted on them. The immunolocalisation of PPR Virus in tissue sections was again achieved using mAbs directed against the PPRV ‘N’ and ‘H’ proteins (Available at the PPR Laboratory, IVRI, Mukteshwar). The method standardised at PPR Laboratory, Mukteshwar, for the in-situ demonstration of PPR antigens was employed.
 
Statistical analysis
 
According to Ashok Kumar’s WEB AGRI STAT PACKAGE programme, developed at the ICAR research Centre in Goa, India, the chi-square test was used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The goal of the current research was to identify the respiratory infection-causing pathogens in goats and to undertake a thorough molecular and pathological analysis of the PPR virus.
 
Prevalence of PPR virus in eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh
 
PPR is a highly contagious viral disease affecting goats. Analysing the prevalence and risk factor data for PPR is crucial given the serious economic impacts of the disease in the Eastern Districts of Uttar Pradesh. To effectively manage, control and eradicate the disease, it is important to understand PPR epidemiology.
       
The clinical signs and symptoms observed (history-based) during the current study matched those reported in cases of PPR in goats from different geographic locations (Kumar et al., 2001; Pawaiya et al., 2004; Rath et al., 2024). When the disease was developed, PPRV-specific antibody titers were present in all serum samples from confirmed PPR outbreaks, especially if the goat survived for more than 10 days after the onset of clinical symptoms (Begum et al., 2018). A total of 71 samples were from the goats that were vaccinated in the past, whereas 20 samples were collected from goats that had not received PPR vaccinations and 29 samples were taken from goats whose vaccination status was not clear. The samples were collected and stored at -20°C until analysis. The study aimed at determining the combined or overall sero-prevalence of PPR in goats in the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. By using c-ELISA to test 120 serum samples for the presence of PPRV antibodies, it was found that 106 (88.33%) of the 120 samples were positive for PPR antibodies (Fig 1). Acharya et al., (2018) found the actual sero-prevalence of PPR was 87.65%, which simulated the present findings.

Fig 1: Detection of antibodies against PPRV by c-ELISA.


       
Seropositivity levels of 33.33% in South Gujarat (Tiwari, 2004) and 37.09% in Gujarat state (Ranaware et al., 2013) were lower than the present findings. Likewise, 47.14% (Patel et al., 2017) and 25.70% (Thakor et al., 2016) of goats in south Gujarat showed an overall seroprevalence. According to Chandrahas et al., (2011), the overall seroprevalence of PPRV infection in sheep and goats in North Gujarat was 46.26% and Balamurugan et al., (2011) observed a 43.56% overall prevalence across various Indian states between 2003 and 2009.
       
The overall sero-prevalence was found to be 47.5% (114/240) and 35.23% (2500/7096) in the Southern Tigray Region of Ethiopia (Afera et al., 2014) and Sindh province of Pakistan (Nizamani et al., 2015), respectively. Slightly higher (62.40%) prevalence was noticed by Sakhare et al., (2019). However, the higher seroprevalence observed in the present findings may be related to vaccination status or to animal exposure to PPR during life.
 
Sero-prevalence of PPR in the eastern district of Uttar Pradesh
 
A total of 120 blood samples were collected for the study on the prevalence of PPR in the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. Higher sero-prevalence was observed in Bhadohi, while Mau and Azamgarh showed nearly identical positivity rates. Bhadohi had the highest prevalence (100%), followed by Mau (94.44%), Azamgarh (93.33%), Ghazipur (90%) and Ballia (73.33%) (Table 1). No significant correlation in prevalence was found between the districts of the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh (P> 0.05). Similar findings were also reported in epidemic samples from the Nepali districts of Kaski and Syangja, with PPR prevalence ranging from 75 to 100 per cent (Acharya et al., 2018). Higher sero-prevalence reported in Eastern Uttar Pradesh might be due to the sampling procedure and sample size. Also, the farmers’ unawareness of vaccination and some vaccinated goats showed positive titers by c-ELISA. Positivity per cent in Ballia district was higher than that reported by Thakor et al., (2016) but was almost at the same level as that reported by Patel et al., (2017) when compared with other districts.

Table 1: PPR sero-prevalence (Region-wise, district- wise, sex wise and age wise).


       
No study reports are available from Eastern Uttar Pradesh to compare the present observations. According to Khan et al., (2007), sero-prevalence was determined to be 43.33% in 24 districts of Punjab Province and 45.5% in various villages throughout 27 randomly chosen districts in Pakistan. Small ruminant outbreaks happened often across the nation and the overall prevalence of PPRV was calculated between 20 and 60% (Singh et al., 2004).
 
Detection of PPR virus using RT-PCR
 
RT- PCR has grown to be the most widely used tool for molecular epidemiological investigations and diagnosis (Shaila et al., 1996). For a particular PPRV, the NP gene fragment was amplified using the primers NP3 and NP4. RT-PCR was used to analyze the extracted RNA from the suspicious samples and the results were read on a gel. According to Couacy-Hymann  et al. (2002), the anticipated band size is 351 bp, while the fragment size of the amplified products is 350 bp. For efficient amplification and detection of viruses in field samples, it is desirable to have multiple primer sets for diagnosis. The primer against the NP gene (np3/np4) was specific and sensitive for detecting PPRV in field samples.
       
The c-ELISA positive cases were subjected to RT-PCR. Out of 104 isolated materials, 29 showed positive results for NP gene-specific primers NP3 and NP4 by RT-PCR, which were demonstrated by the amplification of a 351-bp genome fragment. According to estimates, the positive rates were 24% (6/25), 32% (8/25), 24% (6/25), 35.29% (6/17) and 25% (3/12) in various districts of the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh, including Azamgarh, Ghazipur, Mau, Ballia and Bhadohi (Table 2 and Fig 2).

Table 2: Tissue samples tested from different districts of eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh.



Fig 2: PCR amplification of NP gene of PPRV; lanes 1, 2, 3 are positive and 4 is negative samples; 5= Negative control (NTC); PC = Positive control, Marker 100 bp plus.


 
Pathology of postmortem examinations in goats
 
One hundred fifty (150) goats, 62 young and 88 adults, died for postmortem assessment during the course of the investigation (including ELISA positive cases).
       
All of the goats suspected of having a natural PPR virus infection had revealed carcasses that were severely malnourished and dehydrated, as well as congested and consolidated pneumonic lungs. Trachea filled with frothy fluid. These necropsy findings were almost identical to those previously described by Dhand et al., (2003) and Pawaiya et al., (2004) in both natural and experimental cases, with the exception of a few unusual findings.                                                  

Bronchioles showed hyperplasia with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cell. The bronchiolar lumen contains inflammatory cells, especially mononuclear cells (Fig 3). The presence of syncytial cells and eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cells, reported by Saglam and Temur (2009) and Singh et al., (2021), is similar to the present findings. Although Kumar et al., (2004) and Kul et al., (2007) reported the presence of interstitial pneumonia, their results were only partially in agreement with the present findings. In the current study, exudate was found in the bronchi and the bronchial epithelium was hyperplastic, which was also similar to the findings of Aktas et al., (2011); Maina et al., (2015) and Patel et al., (2017).

Fig 3: Hyperplasia of bronchiole with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cell.


       
Microscopically, lungs contain numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies (Fig 4). Alveolar lumen contains predominantly mononuclear cells, especially alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes and a few neutrophils. These findings were consistent with earlier observations by various researchers (Aktas et al., 2011; Maina et al., 2015; Patel et al., 2017). In the cortex and medullary cords of the spleen, lymphoid cell depletion was observed, as reported by Islam et al., (2001); Kul et al., (2007); Maina et al., (2015) and Patel et al., (2015). Lymphocytolysis of lymphoid tissues might be caused by the PPR virus (Kul et al., 2007).
 

Fig 4: Lung section showing numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies.



Immunohistochemical staining of PPR virus
 
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used in this investigation to identify the PPRV antigen in the formalin-fixed tissue sections of PPR-infected goats. The IHC revealed the PPRV antigen’s location in many organs. 
       
A total of one hundred four (104) samples were processed for IHC and RT-PCR, although IHC had a higher positivity rate, at 45.19% (47/104) compared to RT-PCR’s 27.88% (29/104), which was lower (Table 3). In general, IHC can be a substitute for molecular testing in field cases, given the simplicity of sample collection and storage. Greater positivity in IHC and lesser positivity in RT-PCR may vary depending on the method of sample collection and storage. 

Table 3: PPR positive samples detected by RT-PCR and IHC in different districts of eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh.


       
PPRV antigen is immunolabeled in the intestinal glands and infiltrating macrophages, as shown in Fig 5a and Fig 5 b, whereas the intestinal glands used as a control showed no immunolabeling of PPRV antigen. Pope et al., (2013) reported a similar observation in black Bengal goats that had been experimentally infected with PPRV. A similar viral antigen distribution has been reported in goats infected with PPR virus by Begam et al., (2021) and Kumar et al., (2004). In the present finding, the lymphocytes in the spleen exhibited positive immunolabelling for PPRV antigen and a negative control. When goats were infected with the PPR virus, a comparable viral antigen distribution was seen by Pope et al., (2013).

Fig 5: a) Intestine showed no positive immunelabelling for PPR antigen.

CONCLUSION

Small ruminant productivity in developing nations like India is thought to be severely constrained by the peste des petits ruminants (PPR). PPR and associated respiratory infections involving various viral species are serious health issues for goats in the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. Due to subtropical temperatures and poor transportation infrastructure, maintaining sample storage and handling throughout the year is difficult. However, under these conditions, morbid tissues can be collected in 10% formalin and processed for histological examination and IHC verification of PPR virus in significant target organs. The IHC data suggest it may serve as an alternative method for identifying PPR when other sophisticated laboratory techniques are unavailable.
       
The results of this study confirmed the circulation of the PPR virus among goats in the study area, which should be considered when choosing a vaccination strategy for disease control. However,  the documentation of  seroprevalence  of  PPR  antibodies is  limited in diverse  areas of eastern  plain zone  of Uttar Pradesh. These  results warrant  attention  for the promotion of regular and  effective immunization  of small ruminants to prevent infection.
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are highly thankful for the financial support from NAHEP, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, vide grant number NAHEP/IG-2013/2019-20, dated 20.12.2019.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
This study was approved by the Institutional Animal Ethical Committee (IAEC) of ANDUA and T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, UP, India.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Acharya, N., Poudel, S.P. and Acharya, K.P. (2018). Cross-sectional sero-prevalence study of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats of Syangja and Kaski districts of Nepal. Virus Disease.  29: 173-179.

  2. Afera, B., Hussien, D. and Amsalu, K. (2014). Sero-prevalence of Peste Des Petits ruminants in goats of the southern parts of the tigray region. Global Veterinaria. 12(4): 512-516.

  3. Aktas, M.S., Ozkanlar, Y., Simsek, N., Temur, A. and Kalkan, Y.I.L.D.I.R.A.Y. (2011). Peste des petits ruminants in suckling lambs case report. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 66(1): 39-44.

  4. Balamurugan, V., Krishnamoorthy, P., Raju, D.N.S., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Pandey, A.B., Gajendragad, M.R., Prabhudas, K. and Rahman, H. (2014). Prevalence of antibodies to Peste des petits ruminants virus in cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in India. Virus Diseases. 25(1): 85-90.

  5. Balamurugan, V., Krishnamoorthy, P., Veeregowda, B.M., Sen, A., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Gajendragad, M.R. and Prabhudas, K. (2012). Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in cattle and buffaloes from Southern Peninsular India. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 44: 301-306.

  6. Balamurugan, V., Saravanan, P., Sen, A., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Krishnamoorthy, P. and Singh, R.K. (2011). Sero- epidemiological study of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in India between 2003 and 2009. Revue Scientifique et Technique-OIE.  30(3): 889.

  7. Balamurugan, V., Varghese, B., Kumar, K.V., Muthuchelvan, D., Dheeraj, R., Govindaraj, G., Suresh, K.P., Hemadri, D. and Roy, P. (2020). Sero-prevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in the northern region of India. Veterinary World. 13: 1573-1580.

  8. Balamurugan, V., Varghese, B., Muthuchelvan, D., Sowjanya, K.S., Kumar, K.V., Suresh, K.P., Govindaraj, G., Sunder, J., Hemadri, D. and Roy, P. (2019). Cross-sectional sero- prevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in goats in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Small Ruminant Research. 178: 111-116.

  9. Begum, S., Nooruzzaman, M., Islam, M.R. and Chowdhury, E.H. (2021). A sequential study on the pathology of Peste Des Petits ruminants and tissue distribution of the virus following experimental infection of black bengal goats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 8: 635-671. doi: 10.3389/ fvets.2021.635671.

  10. Begum, S., Nooruzzaman, M., Parvin, M., Mohanto, N., Parvin, R., Islam, M.R. and Chowdhury, E.H. (2018). Peste des petits ruminants virus infection in black bengal goats resulted in altered haematological and serum biochemical profiles. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research. 85(1): 1-10.

  11. Bharti A., Verma Y., Dubey A., Swamy M., Sahoo K.K. and Gupta K.D. (2025). Oxidative stress in goats with peste des petits ruminants (PPR). Indian Journal of Animal Research. 59(12): 2116-2121. doi: 10.18805/IJAR.B-4746.

  12. Chandrahas, S., Chandel, B.S., Chauhan, H.C. and Dadawala, A.I. (2011). Seroprevalence of PPR in sheep and goats of North Gujarat. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants. 17(1): 118- 121.

  13. Couacy-Hymann, E., Roger, F., Hurard, C., Guillou, J.P., Libeau, G. and Diallo, A. (2002). Rapid and sensitive detection of peste des petits ruminants virus by a polymerase chain reaction assay. Journal of Virological Methods. 100(1- 2): 17-25.

  14. Dhand, N.K., Sharma, C.S., Sandhu, K.S., Sharma, D.R. and Singh, J. (2003). Outbreaks of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in Punjab. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 72(10): 853-854.

  15. Diallo, A., Minet, C., Le Goff, C., Berhe, G., Albina, E., Libeau, G. and Barrett, T. (2007). The threat of peste des petits ruminants: progress in vaccine development for disease control. Vaccine. 25(30): 5591-5597.

  16. Hota, A., Biswal, S., Sahoo, N., Rout, M., Chaudhary, D., Pandey, A. and Muthuchelvan, D. (2018). Seroprevalence of PPR among sheep and goats of different agroclimatic zones of Odisha. International Journal of Livestock Research.  8(4): 296-302.

  17. Islam, M.R., Shamsuddin, M., Das, P.M. and Dewan, M.L. (2001). An outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in black bengal goats in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Veterinaria. 18(1): 14-19.

  18. Khan, H.A., Siddique, M., Arshad, M.J., Khan, Q.M. and Rehman, S.U. (2007). Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in sheep and goats in Punjab province of Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 27(3): 109.

  19. Kul, O., Kabakci, N., Atmaca, H.T. and Ozkul, A.Y.K.U.T. (2007). Natural peste des petits ruminants virus infection: Novel pathologic findings resembling other morbillivirus infections. Veterinary Pathology. 44(4): 479-486.

  20. Kumar, A., Singh, S.V., Rana, R., Vaid, R.K., Misri, J. and Vihan, V.S. (2001). PPR outbreak in goats: epidemiological and therapeutic study. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 71(9): 815-812.

  21. Kumar, M.A., Kumar, R., Varshney, K.C., Nair, M.G., Lakkawar, A.W., Sridhar, B.G. and Palanivelu, M. (2014). Pathomorphological studies of lung lesions in sheep. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology. 38(2): 75-81.

  22. Kumar, P., Tripathi, B.N., Sharma, A.K., Kumar, R., Sreenivasa, B.P., Singh, R.P., Dhar, P. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2004). Pathological and immunohistochemical study of experimental peste des petits ruminants virus infection in goats. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B. 51(4): 153-159.

  23. Luna, L.G. (1968). Manual of Histologic Staining Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 3rd Edition, McGraw- Hill, New York.

  24. Maina, S.M., Gitao, C.G. and Gathumbi, P.K. (2015). Clinicopathological observations in sheep and goats exposed to lineage III peste des petits ruminants virus infection in Kenya. Journal Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences. 3(1): 72-80.

  25. Nizamani, A.R., Nizamani, Z.A., Umrani, A.P., Dewani, P., Vandiar, M.A., Gandhi, J.A. and Soomro, N.M. (2015). Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus’s antibodies in small ruminants of Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Science. 25(6): 1515-1519.

  26. Patel, J.M., Patel, D.R., Mavadiya, S.V., Solanki, J.B., Vihol, P.D., Sharma, K.K., Trangadia, B.J. and Kalyani, I.H. (2015). Clinicopathological investigation of an outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants in South Gujarat, India. Veterinary Pathology. 39(1): 20-23.

  27. Patel, Y.R., Patel, J.M., Vihol, P.D., Kalyani, I.H., Sakare, P.S., Panchal, P.P. and Thakor, K.D. (2017). Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in Navsari and Valsad districts of South Gujarat. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science. 6(8): 221-228.

  28. Pawaiya, R.V.S., Misra, N., Bhagwan, P.S.K. and Dubey, S.C. (2004). Pathology and distribution of antigen in goats naturally infected with peste des petits ruminants virus. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 74(1): 35-40.

  29. Pope, R.A., Parida, S., Bailey, D., Brownlie, J., Barrett, T. and Banyard, A.C. (2013). Early events following experimental infection with peste-des-petits ruminants virus suggest immune cell targeting. PloS One. 8(2): 55830.

  30. Ranaware, B.P., Chauhan, H.C., Shah, N.M., Chandel, B.S., Dadawala, P.K.A.I., Patel, S.S. and Parekar, S.S. (2013). Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in small ruminants in Gujarat. Indian Veterinary Journal. 90(4): 9-10.

  31. Rath P.K., Panda S.K., Mishra B.P., Mishra R., Karna D.K. (2024). Epidemiology, haemato-biochemical and pathological changes related to field outbreaks of PPR in small ruminants in Odisha. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 58(8): 1326-1332. doi: 10.18805/IJAR.B-4563.

  32. Saglam, Y.S. and Temur, A. (2009). Immunohistochemical detection of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viral antigen from the cases of naturally occurring pneumonia in sheep. Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi. 15(3): 423-428.

  33. Sakhare, P., Kalyani, I., Vihol, P., Sharma, K., Solanki, J., Desai, D. and Makwana, P. (2019). Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats of southern districts of Gujarat, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science. 8(11): 1552-1565.

  34. Shaila, M.S., Shamaki, D., Forsyth, M.A., Diallo, A., Goatley, L., Kitching, R.P. and Barrett, T. (1996). Geographic distribution and epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus. Virus Research. 43: 149-153.

  35. Singh, R.P., Saravanan, P., Sreenivasa, B.P., Singh, R.K. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2004). Prevalence and distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus infection in small ruminants in India. Review Science Technology. 23(3): 807-819.

  36. Singh, S., Chandratre, G.A. and Narang, G. (2021). A necropsy based investigation on concurrent infection of PPR and emerging opportunistic bacterial pathogens in sheep and goat. Indian Journal of Animal Research. doi: 10.18805/ IJAR.B-4441.

  37. Thakor, R.B., Patel, M.D., Patel, R.M. and Kalyani, I.H. (2016). Sero- prevalence of peste des petits ruminants in goats of South Gujarat. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants. 22(2): 252-254.

  38. Tiwari, A. (2004). Prevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) virus in small ruminants of Gujarat and its characterisation by RT-PCR/RFLP and SSCP profiles (Doctoral dissertation).  M.V.Sc. Thesis, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, India.
Published In
Indian Journal of Animal Research
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
6
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Full Research Article

    Pathological, Immunological and Molecular Epidemiological Study of Peste des Petits Virus in Goats during a High-mortality Epidemic in the Eastern Districts of Uttar Pradesh

     

    D
    D.P. Shrivastava1,*
    D
    D. Niyogi1
    S
    S.V. Singh2
    V
    V. Yadav3,*
    K
    K.K. Tripathi1
    D
    D.K. Yadav4
    J
    J. Yadav5
    S
    S.K. Yadav6
    A
    A.K. Singh7
    1Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    2Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    3Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    4Nepal Agriculture Research Council, National Animal Science Research Institute, Khumaltar, Lalitpur Nepal.
    5Department of Extension Education, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    6Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Kumarganj, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya-224 229, Uttar Pradesh, India.
    7Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Akushpur, Ghazipur-233 302, Uttar Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious and economically important disease. Many PPR outbreaks in sheep and goats in India are unnoticed or are only partially reported because of insufficient mechanisms for animal disease surveillance and reporting.

    Methods: Samples were collected at necropsy from 150 goats that died during the study period and 3 mL blood was collected from live goats suspected of respiratory disease. The samples were maintained at -80°C until use and 10% buffered formalin for histopathology. All the tissue and serum samples were processed at IVRI-Mukteswar and IVRI-Izatnagar by using ELISA, RT-PCR, histopathology and Immunohistochemistry.

    Result: Seroprevalence using c-ELISA for the presence of PPRV antibodies was 88.33%, but no significant correlation in prevalence (P>0.05) was found between the different districts of the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. Microscopically, lungs contain numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies, although immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed a higher positivity rate of 45.19% (47/104) compared to RT-PCR at 27.88% (29/104). In general, IHC may be a substitute for detection in field cases due to the simplicity of sample collection and storage.

    INTRODUCTION

    Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a transboundary viral disease of goats and sheep that is vital to report quickly and is associated with considerable morbidity (65.66%) and mortality (34.34%), according to the International Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (Diallo et al., 2007).
           
    The SAARC region has incurred an average annual economic loss of $2,972.5 million due to morbidity, mortality, production losses and PPR treatment costs. India alone contributed $2569.00 million annually to this loss. India’s goat population is growing faster than its sheep population. Animal productivity, organized marketing and the control of current and emerging diseases should therefore receive substantial attention (Balamurugan et al., 2014 and Kumar et al., 2014).
           
    The majority of PPR endemicity in small ruminants is related to the transmission of infection, either through close contact between healthy and ill animals or through nomadic grazing and cross-border movement of ill animals. More than 50% of the affected animals used to die from it. Almost all states have reported multiple outbreaks regularly, including Maharashtra, one of the country’s top states for sheep and goat production (Hota et al., 2018). Due to insufficient procedures for animal disease surveillance and reporting, many PPR outbreaks in sheep and goats in India go unreported or are only partially reported (Balamurugan et al., 2012). Balamurugan et al., (2020) reported 65.69% seroprevalence in small ruminants in Uttar Pradesh.
           
    The clinical picture of PPR could be described by the “3 Ds,” or discharge, diarrhea and death, with a fourth component, bronchopneumonia (Bharti et al., 2025). Pyrexia, ocular-nasal discharge, oral lesions, respiratory symptoms and diarrhoea are the five specific cardinal clinical findings that comprise the PPR case definition (Balamurugan et al., 2019).
           
    Because PPRV antibodies can be detected in the serum of affected sheep and goats, c-ELISA is the most frequently used serological diagnostic test for PPR. It has high sensitivity (94.5%) and specificity (99.4%) compared with virus-neutralisation assays (Singh et al., 2004). Immunohistochemical staining is the most appropriate and standard method for PPR diagnosis when PCR and other techniques are not available.
           
    However, a significant number of farmers keep goats. Given their situation, the rapid outbreaks of PPR constitute a serious setback. Developing methods for early, precise diagnosis is crucial to making this goat-based economy profitable and sustainable. Therefore, this study was planned to determine the prevalence of respiratory diseases to permit the comparison of data with other epidemiological studies and provide information to government agencies to implement necessary control measures to reduce the economic losses of goat rearers and also to isolate and identify the organism to evaluate the frequency of the disease among goats in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Thus, considering the above facts and the economic importance of the Peste des petits ruminants in goats, the present study was conducted. 

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Postmortem examination of 150 dead goats suspected of respiratory diseases was conducted. Samples were collected in 10% formalin from goats with respiratory lesions during necropsy and 3 ml of blood was collected in clot activator vials (AV LabotÛbe) at organised and unorganised farms of the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. The samples were maintained at -80°C until use. All the tissue and serum samples were processed at IVRI-Mukteswar and IVRI-Izatnagar.
     
    Methods used for PPR virus identification
     
    Isolation and identification of PPR virus
     
    Samples were processed at the IVRI Mukteshwar PPR laboratory and at the IVRI Izatnagar (immunohistochemistry).
     
    Serological test
     
    Screening of sero-surveillance and sero-monitoring of PPR antibodies in goats was performed using the PPR cELISA Kit developed at IVRI Mukteswar, which uses a monoclonal antibody directed against a neutralising epitope of the Hemagglutinin protein of PPR Virus, as per Singh et al., (2004).
     
    Detection of PPR virus by using RT-PCR
     
    Total RNA was isolated from the Nasal swab and tissues using TRIzolTM reagent (InvitrogenTM, ThermoFisher Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.
           
    RNA in all samples was quantified using a NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (Nanotechnologies, USA). The cDNA was synthesised by reverse transcription, primed with random primers and the entire RNA was converted to cDNA according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The cDNA prepared was checked using murine housekeeping/endogenous control NP3 and NP4 gene-specific primers and 2x Dream Taq Green PCR Master Mix (Thermo Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. The amplified products were visualised on a 1.5% agarose gel (Cat No. A9539; Sigma- Aldrich, USA.
     
    Pathological study
     
    Gross lesions in various visceral organs such as lungs, trachea, liver and intestine were noted. Lesion in lungs and intestine were graded as per severity of disease. The tissue samples were collected in 10% formalin.
     
    Microscopic pathology
     
    All tissues were collected in 10% formalin and those samples positive in ELISA, for further confirmation processed for histopathological examination according to standard procedures. The cut sections were stained with the Haematoxylin and Eosin (HE) method as per the procedure of Luna (1968).
     
    Immunohistochemistry
     
    For immunohistochemical analysis, poly-L-lysine-coated slides were prepared and tissue sections were mounted on them. The immunolocalisation of PPR Virus in tissue sections was again achieved using mAbs directed against the PPRV ‘N’ and ‘H’ proteins (Available at the PPR Laboratory, IVRI, Mukteshwar). The method standardised at PPR Laboratory, Mukteshwar, for the in-situ demonstration of PPR antigens was employed.
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    According to Ashok Kumar’s WEB AGRI STAT PACKAGE programme, developed at the ICAR research Centre in Goa, India, the chi-square test was used.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    The goal of the current research was to identify the respiratory infection-causing pathogens in goats and to undertake a thorough molecular and pathological analysis of the PPR virus.
     
    Prevalence of PPR virus in eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh
     
    PPR is a highly contagious viral disease affecting goats. Analysing the prevalence and risk factor data for PPR is crucial given the serious economic impacts of the disease in the Eastern Districts of Uttar Pradesh. To effectively manage, control and eradicate the disease, it is important to understand PPR epidemiology.
           
    The clinical signs and symptoms observed (history-based) during the current study matched those reported in cases of PPR in goats from different geographic locations (Kumar et al., 2001; Pawaiya et al., 2004; Rath et al., 2024). When the disease was developed, PPRV-specific antibody titers were present in all serum samples from confirmed PPR outbreaks, especially if the goat survived for more than 10 days after the onset of clinical symptoms (Begum et al., 2018). A total of 71 samples were from the goats that were vaccinated in the past, whereas 20 samples were collected from goats that had not received PPR vaccinations and 29 samples were taken from goats whose vaccination status was not clear. The samples were collected and stored at -20°C until analysis. The study aimed at determining the combined or overall sero-prevalence of PPR in goats in the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh. By using c-ELISA to test 120 serum samples for the presence of PPRV antibodies, it was found that 106 (88.33%) of the 120 samples were positive for PPR antibodies (Fig 1). Acharya et al., (2018) found the actual sero-prevalence of PPR was 87.65%, which simulated the present findings.

    Fig 1: Detection of antibodies against PPRV by c-ELISA.


           
    Seropositivity levels of 33.33% in South Gujarat (Tiwari, 2004) and 37.09% in Gujarat state (Ranaware et al., 2013) were lower than the present findings. Likewise, 47.14% (Patel et al., 2017) and 25.70% (Thakor et al., 2016) of goats in south Gujarat showed an overall seroprevalence. According to Chandrahas et al., (2011), the overall seroprevalence of PPRV infection in sheep and goats in North Gujarat was 46.26% and Balamurugan et al., (2011) observed a 43.56% overall prevalence across various Indian states between 2003 and 2009.
           
    The overall sero-prevalence was found to be 47.5% (114/240) and 35.23% (2500/7096) in the Southern Tigray Region of Ethiopia (Afera et al., 2014) and Sindh province of Pakistan (Nizamani et al., 2015), respectively. Slightly higher (62.40%) prevalence was noticed by Sakhare et al., (2019). However, the higher seroprevalence observed in the present findings may be related to vaccination status or to animal exposure to PPR during life.
     
    Sero-prevalence of PPR in the eastern district of Uttar Pradesh
     
    A total of 120 blood samples were collected for the study on the prevalence of PPR in the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. Higher sero-prevalence was observed in Bhadohi, while Mau and Azamgarh showed nearly identical positivity rates. Bhadohi had the highest prevalence (100%), followed by Mau (94.44%), Azamgarh (93.33%), Ghazipur (90%) and Ballia (73.33%) (Table 1). No significant correlation in prevalence was found between the districts of the Eastern Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh (P> 0.05). Similar findings were also reported in epidemic samples from the Nepali districts of Kaski and Syangja, with PPR prevalence ranging from 75 to 100 per cent (Acharya et al., 2018). Higher sero-prevalence reported in Eastern Uttar Pradesh might be due to the sampling procedure and sample size. Also, the farmers’ unawareness of vaccination and some vaccinated goats showed positive titers by c-ELISA. Positivity per cent in Ballia district was higher than that reported by Thakor et al., (2016) but was almost at the same level as that reported by Patel et al., (2017) when compared with other districts.

    Table 1: PPR sero-prevalence (Region-wise, district- wise, sex wise and age wise).


           
    No study reports are available from Eastern Uttar Pradesh to compare the present observations. According to Khan et al., (2007), sero-prevalence was determined to be 43.33% in 24 districts of Punjab Province and 45.5% in various villages throughout 27 randomly chosen districts in Pakistan. Small ruminant outbreaks happened often across the nation and the overall prevalence of PPRV was calculated between 20 and 60% (Singh et al., 2004).
     
    Detection of PPR virus using RT-PCR
     
    RT- PCR has grown to be the most widely used tool for molecular epidemiological investigations and diagnosis (Shaila et al., 1996). For a particular PPRV, the NP gene fragment was amplified using the primers NP3 and NP4. RT-PCR was used to analyze the extracted RNA from the suspicious samples and the results were read on a gel. According to Couacy-Hymann  et al. (2002), the anticipated band size is 351 bp, while the fragment size of the amplified products is 350 bp. For efficient amplification and detection of viruses in field samples, it is desirable to have multiple primer sets for diagnosis. The primer against the NP gene (np3/np4) was specific and sensitive for detecting PPRV in field samples.
           
    The c-ELISA positive cases were subjected to RT-PCR. Out of 104 isolated materials, 29 showed positive results for NP gene-specific primers NP3 and NP4 by RT-PCR, which were demonstrated by the amplification of a 351-bp genome fragment. According to estimates, the positive rates were 24% (6/25), 32% (8/25), 24% (6/25), 35.29% (6/17) and 25% (3/12) in various districts of the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh, including Azamgarh, Ghazipur, Mau, Ballia and Bhadohi (Table 2 and Fig 2).

    Table 2: Tissue samples tested from different districts of eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh.



    Fig 2: PCR amplification of NP gene of PPRV; lanes 1, 2, 3 are positive and 4 is negative samples; 5= Negative control (NTC); PC = Positive control, Marker 100 bp plus.


     
    Pathology of postmortem examinations in goats
     
    One hundred fifty (150) goats, 62 young and 88 adults, died for postmortem assessment during the course of the investigation (including ELISA positive cases).
           
    All of the goats suspected of having a natural PPR virus infection had revealed carcasses that were severely malnourished and dehydrated, as well as congested and consolidated pneumonic lungs. Trachea filled with frothy fluid. These necropsy findings were almost identical to those previously described by Dhand et al., (2003) and Pawaiya et al., (2004) in both natural and experimental cases, with the exception of a few unusual findings.                                                  

    Bronchioles showed hyperplasia with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cell. The bronchiolar lumen contains inflammatory cells, especially mononuclear cells (Fig 3). The presence of syncytial cells and eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cells, reported by Saglam and Temur (2009) and Singh et al., (2021), is similar to the present findings. Although Kumar et al., (2004) and Kul et al., (2007) reported the presence of interstitial pneumonia, their results were only partially in agreement with the present findings. In the current study, exudate was found in the bronchi and the bronchial epithelium was hyperplastic, which was also similar to the findings of Aktas et al., (2011); Maina et al., (2015) and Patel et al., (2017).

    Fig 3: Hyperplasia of bronchiole with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies in bronchial epithelial cell.


           
    Microscopically, lungs contain numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies (Fig 4). Alveolar lumen contains predominantly mononuclear cells, especially alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes and a few neutrophils. These findings were consistent with earlier observations by various researchers (Aktas et al., 2011; Maina et al., 2015; Patel et al., 2017). In the cortex and medullary cords of the spleen, lymphoid cell depletion was observed, as reported by Islam et al., (2001); Kul et al., (2007); Maina et al., (2015) and Patel et al., (2015). Lymphocytolysis of lymphoid tissues might be caused by the PPR virus (Kul et al., 2007).
     

    Fig 4: Lung section showing numerous multinucleated giant cells with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies.



    Immunohistochemical staining of PPR virus
     
    Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used in this investigation to identify the PPRV antigen in the formalin-fixed tissue sections of PPR-infected goats. The IHC revealed the PPRV antigen’s location in many organs. 
           
    A total of one hundred four (104) samples were processed for IHC and RT-PCR, although IHC had a higher positivity rate, at 45.19% (47/104) compared to RT-PCR’s 27.88% (29/104), which was lower (Table 3). In general, IHC can be a substitute for molecular testing in field cases, given the simplicity of sample collection and storage. Greater positivity in IHC and lesser positivity in RT-PCR may vary depending on the method of sample collection and storage. 

    Table 3: PPR positive samples detected by RT-PCR and IHC in different districts of eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh.


           
    PPRV antigen is immunolabeled in the intestinal glands and infiltrating macrophages, as shown in Fig 5a and Fig 5 b, whereas the intestinal glands used as a control showed no immunolabeling of PPRV antigen. Pope et al., (2013) reported a similar observation in black Bengal goats that had been experimentally infected with PPRV. A similar viral antigen distribution has been reported in goats infected with PPR virus by Begam et al., (2021) and Kumar et al., (2004). In the present finding, the lymphocytes in the spleen exhibited positive immunolabelling for PPRV antigen and a negative control. When goats were infected with the PPR virus, a comparable viral antigen distribution was seen by Pope et al., (2013).

    Fig 5: a) Intestine showed no positive immunelabelling for PPR antigen.

    CONCLUSION

    Small ruminant productivity in developing nations like India is thought to be severely constrained by the peste des petits ruminants (PPR). PPR and associated respiratory infections involving various viral species are serious health issues for goats in the eastern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. Due to subtropical temperatures and poor transportation infrastructure, maintaining sample storage and handling throughout the year is difficult. However, under these conditions, morbid tissues can be collected in 10% formalin and processed for histological examination and IHC verification of PPR virus in significant target organs. The IHC data suggest it may serve as an alternative method for identifying PPR when other sophisticated laboratory techniques are unavailable.
           
    The results of this study confirmed the circulation of the PPR virus among goats in the study area, which should be considered when choosing a vaccination strategy for disease control. However,  the documentation of  seroprevalence  of  PPR  antibodies is  limited in diverse  areas of eastern  plain zone  of Uttar Pradesh. These  results warrant  attention  for the promotion of regular and  effective immunization  of small ruminants to prevent infection.
     

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    Authors are highly thankful for the financial support from NAHEP, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, vide grant number NAHEP/IG-2013/2019-20, dated 20.12.2019.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    This study was approved by the Institutional Animal Ethical Committee (IAEC) of ANDUA and T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, UP, India.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

    REFERENCES


    1. Acharya, N., Poudel, S.P. and Acharya, K.P. (2018). Cross-sectional sero-prevalence study of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats of Syangja and Kaski districts of Nepal. Virus Disease.  29: 173-179.

    2. Afera, B., Hussien, D. and Amsalu, K. (2014). Sero-prevalence of Peste Des Petits ruminants in goats of the southern parts of the tigray region. Global Veterinaria. 12(4): 512-516.

    3. Aktas, M.S., Ozkanlar, Y., Simsek, N., Temur, A. and Kalkan, Y.I.L.D.I.R.A.Y. (2011). Peste des petits ruminants in suckling lambs case report. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 66(1): 39-44.

    4. Balamurugan, V., Krishnamoorthy, P., Raju, D.N.S., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Pandey, A.B., Gajendragad, M.R., Prabhudas, K. and Rahman, H. (2014). Prevalence of antibodies to Peste des petits ruminants virus in cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in India. Virus Diseases. 25(1): 85-90.

    5. Balamurugan, V., Krishnamoorthy, P., Veeregowda, B.M., Sen, A., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Gajendragad, M.R. and Prabhudas, K. (2012). Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in cattle and buffaloes from Southern Peninsular India. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 44: 301-306.

    6. Balamurugan, V., Saravanan, P., Sen, A., Rajak, K.K., Bhanuprakash, V., Krishnamoorthy, P. and Singh, R.K. (2011). Sero- epidemiological study of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in India between 2003 and 2009. Revue Scientifique et Technique-OIE.  30(3): 889.

    7. Balamurugan, V., Varghese, B., Kumar, K.V., Muthuchelvan, D., Dheeraj, R., Govindaraj, G., Suresh, K.P., Hemadri, D. and Roy, P. (2020). Sero-prevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in the northern region of India. Veterinary World. 13: 1573-1580.

    8. Balamurugan, V., Varghese, B., Muthuchelvan, D., Sowjanya, K.S., Kumar, K.V., Suresh, K.P., Govindaraj, G., Sunder, J., Hemadri, D. and Roy, P. (2019). Cross-sectional sero- prevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in goats in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Small Ruminant Research. 178: 111-116.

    9. Begum, S., Nooruzzaman, M., Islam, M.R. and Chowdhury, E.H. (2021). A sequential study on the pathology of Peste Des Petits ruminants and tissue distribution of the virus following experimental infection of black bengal goats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 8: 635-671. doi: 10.3389/ fvets.2021.635671.

    10. Begum, S., Nooruzzaman, M., Parvin, M., Mohanto, N., Parvin, R., Islam, M.R. and Chowdhury, E.H. (2018). Peste des petits ruminants virus infection in black bengal goats resulted in altered haematological and serum biochemical profiles. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research. 85(1): 1-10.

    11. Bharti A., Verma Y., Dubey A., Swamy M., Sahoo K.K. and Gupta K.D. (2025). Oxidative stress in goats with peste des petits ruminants (PPR). Indian Journal of Animal Research. 59(12): 2116-2121. doi: 10.18805/IJAR.B-4746.

    12. Chandrahas, S., Chandel, B.S., Chauhan, H.C. and Dadawala, A.I. (2011). Seroprevalence of PPR in sheep and goats of North Gujarat. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants. 17(1): 118- 121.

    13. Couacy-Hymann, E., Roger, F., Hurard, C., Guillou, J.P., Libeau, G. and Diallo, A. (2002). Rapid and sensitive detection of peste des petits ruminants virus by a polymerase chain reaction assay. Journal of Virological Methods. 100(1- 2): 17-25.

    14. Dhand, N.K., Sharma, C.S., Sandhu, K.S., Sharma, D.R. and Singh, J. (2003). Outbreaks of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in Punjab. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 72(10): 853-854.

    15. Diallo, A., Minet, C., Le Goff, C., Berhe, G., Albina, E., Libeau, G. and Barrett, T. (2007). The threat of peste des petits ruminants: progress in vaccine development for disease control. Vaccine. 25(30): 5591-5597.

    16. Hota, A., Biswal, S., Sahoo, N., Rout, M., Chaudhary, D., Pandey, A. and Muthuchelvan, D. (2018). Seroprevalence of PPR among sheep and goats of different agroclimatic zones of Odisha. International Journal of Livestock Research.  8(4): 296-302.

    17. Islam, M.R., Shamsuddin, M., Das, P.M. and Dewan, M.L. (2001). An outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in black bengal goats in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Veterinaria. 18(1): 14-19.

    18. Khan, H.A., Siddique, M., Arshad, M.J., Khan, Q.M. and Rehman, S.U. (2007). Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in sheep and goats in Punjab province of Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 27(3): 109.

    19. Kul, O., Kabakci, N., Atmaca, H.T. and Ozkul, A.Y.K.U.T. (2007). Natural peste des petits ruminants virus infection: Novel pathologic findings resembling other morbillivirus infections. Veterinary Pathology. 44(4): 479-486.

    20. Kumar, A., Singh, S.V., Rana, R., Vaid, R.K., Misri, J. and Vihan, V.S. (2001). PPR outbreak in goats: epidemiological and therapeutic study. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 71(9): 815-812.

    21. Kumar, M.A., Kumar, R., Varshney, K.C., Nair, M.G., Lakkawar, A.W., Sridhar, B.G. and Palanivelu, M. (2014). Pathomorphological studies of lung lesions in sheep. Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology. 38(2): 75-81.

    22. Kumar, P., Tripathi, B.N., Sharma, A.K., Kumar, R., Sreenivasa, B.P., Singh, R.P., Dhar, P. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2004). Pathological and immunohistochemical study of experimental peste des petits ruminants virus infection in goats. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B. 51(4): 153-159.

    23. Luna, L.G. (1968). Manual of Histologic Staining Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 3rd Edition, McGraw- Hill, New York.

    24. Maina, S.M., Gitao, C.G. and Gathumbi, P.K. (2015). Clinicopathological observations in sheep and goats exposed to lineage III peste des petits ruminants virus infection in Kenya. Journal Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences. 3(1): 72-80.

    25. Nizamani, A.R., Nizamani, Z.A., Umrani, A.P., Dewani, P., Vandiar, M.A., Gandhi, J.A. and Soomro, N.M. (2015). Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus’s antibodies in small ruminants of Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Science. 25(6): 1515-1519.

    26. Patel, J.M., Patel, D.R., Mavadiya, S.V., Solanki, J.B., Vihol, P.D., Sharma, K.K., Trangadia, B.J. and Kalyani, I.H. (2015). Clinicopathological investigation of an outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants in South Gujarat, India. Veterinary Pathology. 39(1): 20-23.

    27. Patel, Y.R., Patel, J.M., Vihol, P.D., Kalyani, I.H., Sakare, P.S., Panchal, P.P. and Thakor, K.D. (2017). Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in Navsari and Valsad districts of South Gujarat. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science. 6(8): 221-228.

    28. Pawaiya, R.V.S., Misra, N., Bhagwan, P.S.K. and Dubey, S.C. (2004). Pathology and distribution of antigen in goats naturally infected with peste des petits ruminants virus. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 74(1): 35-40.

    29. Pope, R.A., Parida, S., Bailey, D., Brownlie, J., Barrett, T. and Banyard, A.C. (2013). Early events following experimental infection with peste-des-petits ruminants virus suggest immune cell targeting. PloS One. 8(2): 55830.

    30. Ranaware, B.P., Chauhan, H.C., Shah, N.M., Chandel, B.S., Dadawala, P.K.A.I., Patel, S.S. and Parekar, S.S. (2013). Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in small ruminants in Gujarat. Indian Veterinary Journal. 90(4): 9-10.

    31. Rath P.K., Panda S.K., Mishra B.P., Mishra R., Karna D.K. (2024). Epidemiology, haemato-biochemical and pathological changes related to field outbreaks of PPR in small ruminants in Odisha. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 58(8): 1326-1332. doi: 10.18805/IJAR.B-4563.

    32. Saglam, Y.S. and Temur, A. (2009). Immunohistochemical detection of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viral antigen from the cases of naturally occurring pneumonia in sheep. Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi. 15(3): 423-428.

    33. Sakhare, P., Kalyani, I., Vihol, P., Sharma, K., Solanki, J., Desai, D. and Makwana, P. (2019). Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats of southern districts of Gujarat, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science. 8(11): 1552-1565.

    34. Shaila, M.S., Shamaki, D., Forsyth, M.A., Diallo, A., Goatley, L., Kitching, R.P. and Barrett, T. (1996). Geographic distribution and epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus. Virus Research. 43: 149-153.

    35. Singh, R.P., Saravanan, P., Sreenivasa, B.P., Singh, R.K. and Bandyopadhyay, S.K. (2004). Prevalence and distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus infection in small ruminants in India. Review Science Technology. 23(3): 807-819.

    36. Singh, S., Chandratre, G.A. and Narang, G. (2021). A necropsy based investigation on concurrent infection of PPR and emerging opportunistic bacterial pathogens in sheep and goat. Indian Journal of Animal Research. doi: 10.18805/ IJAR.B-4441.

    37. Thakor, R.B., Patel, M.D., Patel, R.M. and Kalyani, I.H. (2016). Sero- prevalence of peste des petits ruminants in goats of South Gujarat. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants. 22(2): 252-254.

    38. Tiwari, A. (2004). Prevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) virus in small ruminants of Gujarat and its characterisation by RT-PCR/RFLP and SSCP profiles (Doctoral dissertation).  M.V.Sc. Thesis, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, India.
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Indian Journal of Animal Research

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)