Pesticides have become essential components of modern agriculture, playing a crucial role in protecting crops from pests and diseases and thereby contributing significantly to food production and global food security. Nevertheless, significant concerns have been raised regarding their unintended effects on the environment, human health and critically animal and livestock health
(Garud et al., 2024; Sajad et al., 2024). Pesticides constitute a large and chemically diverse group of compounds and their mixtures, which are important from the environmental protection standpoint because they can disturb the natural balance of ecosystems through bioaccumulation in food chains
(Kumar et al., 2024: Jabłońska-Trypuć and Wiater, 2022).
In veterinary and livestock systems, pesticide exposure is a significant and growing concern. Cattle, poultry, swine and aquatic animals are exposed through contaminated feed, drinking water, pastures and the broader environment
(Piao et al., 2023). The resulting effects include impaired growth performance, reproductive inefficiency, immunosuppression, hepatorenal damage and increased susceptibility to infectious diseases all of which translate directly to major economic losses in the livestock sector. Despite this, the majority of published research on plant-based protective strategies focuses on laboratory rodents, leaving critical knowledge gaps regarding applicability in food-producing animals.
These chemicals exert their toxic effects primarily by inducing oxidative stress, disrupting enzymatic activities and causing damage to vital organs including the liver, kidneys and brain. Recent systematic analyses have linked pesticide exposure with cancer, neurological disorders, endocrine disruption and respiratory diseases
(Shekhar et al., 2024). Fortunately, a growing body of research highlights the remarkable ameliorative potential of plant-derived compounds and extracts. Plants are increasingly recognized as a source of safe, affordable and accessible medicines worldwide
(Sultana et al., 2023; Nwozo et al., 2023; Althubyani and Alrefaei, 2024).
This review comprehensively examines the protective potential of medicinal plants and their bioactive constituents against pesticide-induced toxicity, with particular emphasis on evidence relevant to veterinary and animal science applications. We also provide a critical appraisal of current evidence, identify limitations and propose concrete directions for future research.
Mechanisms of pesticide toxicity in animal
Pesticide-induced toxicity is primarily mediated through the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, DNA damage and apoptosis
(Sajad et al., 2024; Sule et al., 2022). Oxidative stress refers to a critical imbalance between pro-oxidant production and the body’s antioxidant defence capacity. Stimulation of free radical production, induction of lipid peroxidation and disturbance of total antioxidant capacity play central roles in the molecular mechanisms of pesticide toxicity
(Zeng et al., 2021).
Free radicals, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), are mainly generated during mitochondrial ATP synthesis. Under normal physiological conditions, they participate in signal transduction, immune defence and redox regulation
(Piao et al., 2023; Chibuye et al., 2024). However, overproduction due to xenobiotic exposure results in cellular dysfunction, organelle damage and apoptosis
(Sule et al., 2022) as illustrated in Fig 1.
Recent evidence further indicates that pesticides can induce mitochondrial dysfunction, immunotoxicity and endocrine disruption through ROS-dependent signalling pathways (
D’Souza et al., 2024). In livestock specifically, organophosphate and pyrethroid compounds have been shown to inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, disrupt hypothalamic–pituitary - gonadal hormonal axes and impair hepatic detoxification - impacts that are particularly concerning in food-producing animals given the potential for residue transfer to human consumers. Meta-analytical studies demonstrate that pesticide exposure significantly alters antioxidant defence systems across diverse animal species, with responses varying by dose, duration and species
(Zhang et al., 2025).
Phytochemical basis of plant protective activity
Plants are a rich source of bioactive secondary metabolites including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, phenolics, lignans, plant steroids, curcuminoids, saponins and glucosides. Among these, phenolics are the most abundant, constituting approximately 45% of secondary phytochemical constituents, followed by terpenoids and steroids (27%), alkaloids (18%) and others (10%)
(Nwozo et al., 2023; Chibuye et al., 2024).
Phenolic compounds
Polyphenols are low-molecular-weight organic compounds characterized by the presence of one or more hydroxyl groups attached to aromatic benzene rings, with hydroxybenzene considered their fundamental structural unit. These compounds may exist as simple molecules or as highly complex polymers (Fig 2). The extensive structural diversity of polyphenols determines their physicochemical properties and wide range of biological activities. Their antioxidant activity mainly arises from the ability of hydroxyl groups to donate hydrogen atoms or electrons, thereby scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress (
Galanakis, 2018). In addition to antioxidant effects, polyphenols exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, neuroprotective and anticancer properties (
Tsao, 2010;
Cory et al., 2018). Polyphenols exhibited a positive effect on the growth performance of laying hens
(Hongrui et al., 2026). Owing to these biological activities, polyphenols have gained considerable attention in nutrition, pharmacology, toxicology and veterinary science for their potential role in preventing and managing various diseases and toxic insults. Polyphenols are classified into several classes and subclasses according to their chemical structure, number of phenolic rings, position of functional groups and carbon skeleton arrangement
viz flavonoids (
Pandey and Rizvi, 2009;
Al Mamari, 2021;
Zagoskina et al., 2023; Xu and Wang, 2025).
Mechanism of protective effect of plants
The primary mechanisms by which plant phenolic compounds confer protection at the molecular level include: (i) free radical scavenging, (ii) metal chelation, (iii) inhibition of pro-oxidant enzymes such as lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases, (iv) upregulation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes including catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and (v) modulation of apoptotic, autophagy and inflammatory signalling pathways (
Olszowy, 2019;
Singh et al., 2024; Guo et al., 2024), as illustrated in Fig 3. Recent studies have demonstrated that phytochemicals also regulate ferroptosis and endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways, providing broader cytoprotection
(Guo et al., 2024).
In ruminant and monogastric livestock, phytogenic feed additives incorporating polyphenols and terpenoids have gained increasing acceptance as natural alternatives to synthetic antioxidants.
Piao et al. (2023) reviewed the application of phytogenic extracts as antioxidants in ruminants and highlighted their efficacy in reducing oxidative markers during environmental or chemical stress. These findings support the incorporation of plant-based bioactives into animal nutrition programmes as a strategy for mitigating pesticide-related oxidative burden in livestock.
Key medicinal plants and their protective roles
The following sections review the major medicinal plants and phytochemicals investigated for their protective effects against pesticide-induced toxicity. Evidence is presented by plant category, with critical evaluation of study quality and veterinary relevance where applicable.
Quercetin
Quercetin (QUE), a bioactive flavonol naturally present in numerous fruits and vegetables, has gained considerable scientific interest owing to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties
(Alshabanat et al., 2026).
It has been extensively evaluated against pesticide-induced toxicity across multiple species. Quercetin has been shown to ameliorate the inhibitory effects of abamectin on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in fish (
Oreochromis niloticus), mediated through antioxidant, immunostimulatory and anti-inflammatory mechanisms
(Mansour et al., 2022). These findings are particularly relevant to aquaculture settings where organochlorine and avermectin-class pesticides are widely used.
In rats, quercetin mitigated cypermethrin and deltamethrin induced reproductive damage by enhancing pituitary-gonadal hormone activity and steroidogenic enzyme function
(Sharma et al., 2018) an outcome of direct relevance to livestock reproductive performance. Quercetin also demonstrated protection against fipronil-induced subacute toxicity in rats by normalizing elevated hepatic and renal biochemical parameters
(Yadav et al., 2024). Its hepatoprotective effects against abamectin-induced hepatorenal oxidative damage have been documented in Nile tilapia (
Abd El-Naby et al., 2022).
Critical appraisal
Most quercetin studies are conducted in rodent models at supraphysiological doses that may not be directly translatable to livestock. The bioavailability of quercetin varies significantly across species due to differences in gut microbiota and metabolism (
Bešlo et al., 2023) Long-term safety data in food-producing animals and information on potential residue transfer to animal products are lacking and represent important research priorities.
Curcumin
Curcumin, the principal polyphenolic constituent of turmeric (
Curcuma longa), exhibits potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective and DNA-protective properties
(Uzunhisarcikli et al., 2023). It functions as a free radical scavenger, stimulates glutathione-S-transferase, prevents lipid peroxidation and modulates NF-κB/TNF-α and Nrf2/HO-1 signalling pathways
(Eldesoqui et al., 2023).
Against pesticide toxicity, curcumin has demonstrated: (i) attenuation of malathion-induced neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in rat brain (
Abdel-Daim et al., 2020); (ii) mitigation of fipronil-induced nephrotoxicity through free radical scavenging
(Uzunhisarcikli et al., 2023); (iii) protection against biochemical and haematological alterations induced by fipronil during subacute oral exposure in rats
(Yadav et al., 2024); (iv) combined with vitamin C, effective counteraction of buprofezin toxicity in non-target vertebrates, restoring biochemical, haematological and histological parameters
(Sadia et al., 2025); and (v) alleviation of combined broflanilide-myclobutanil oxidative stress in honeybees
(Ye et al., 2025).
Of particular veterinary relevance, the synergistic action of curcumin in combination with vitamin C highlights promising formulation strategies for safeguarding livestock against the combined pesticide exposures frequently encountered in agricultural environments.
Critical appraisal
Curcumin’s low oral bioavailability in most species remains a major translational challenge. Nanoformulation and phospholipid complexation strategies have improved delivery in experimental models but have not been validated in livestock
(Shi et al., 2025 ;
Silvestre et al., 2023). Although these approaches have shown promising results in experimental and clinical settings, their application in livestock remains limited. Significant species-specific variation in curcumin bioavailability exists (higher in poultry than ruminants), highlighting the need for tailored delivery and dosing studies
(Pan et al., 2022).
Aloe vera
Aloe vera possesses a rich array of bioactive constituents including polysaccharides (acemannan), anthraquinones (aloin, aloe-emodin), vitamins, enzymes, amino acids and phenolic compounds, conferring anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic and wound-healing activities
(Maan et al., 2018; Yadav et al., 2025).
Aqueous extract of
Aloe vera significantly ameliorated the neurotoxic effects of cartap (a thiocarbamate pesticide) in the brains of Wistar rats by restoring oxidative stress markers to near-control levels
(Gupta et al., 2021). Subsequently,
Gupta et al., (2023) demonstrated antioxidative efficacy of
Aloe vera against malathion-induced neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in rats, with normalization of biochemical and histological parameters.
Critical appraisal
Published data on
Aloe vera in veterinary contexts are limited largely to rodent models. The plant is widely used in traditional animal husbandry across South Asia, but controlled studies in cattle, poultry, or swine exposed to agricultural pesticides are absent from the current literature- a significant knowledge gap.
Phyllanthus niruri (Bhumi amla)
Phyllanthus niruri L. has been extensively documented in traditional ethnomedical systems for the treatment of hepatic disorders, kidney disease, diabetes and inflammatory conditions
(Nisar et al., 2018). More than 90 bioactive compounds have been isolated, predominantly lignins, triterpenoids, flavonoids and tannins (
Wale and Shinde, 2022).
Aqueous extract of
P. niruri significantly ameliorated the deleterious hepatotoxic effects of imidacloprid (a neonicotinoid insecticide) in chicken embryos-a model with direct relevance to poultry production. It normalized serum AST and ALT and reduced histological hepatic damage
(Khandia et al., 2019). This is among the few plant-based protective studies conducted in an avian model, making it particularly noteworthy from a veterinary perspective.
Critical appraisal
Evidence for
P. niruri against pesticide toxicity is currently limited to a single study in chicken embryos (
Sureshbabu et al., 2023). Expansion to in vivo poultry models at field-relevant neonicotinoid exposure levels would substantially strengthen the evidence base.
Urtica dioica (Stinging nettle)
Urtica dioica is widely recognized for its antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and analgesic properties, primarily attributed to its high polyphenolic content
(Alimoddin et al., 2024). It has demonstrated efficacy against a range of pesticide classes across multiple models (
Alimoddin et al., 2024;
Saoudi et al., 2020; Raza et al., 2023; Chira et al., 2025).
Aqueous extract of
U. dioica demonstrated hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects against combined deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos exposure in adult male rats, evidenced by improvements in haematological parameters and reductions in organ-damage markers
(Saoudi et al., 2020). Additionally,
U. dioica extract ameliorated thiamethoxam-induced teratogenicity in embryonated chicken eggs, enhancing survival rates and reducing developmental abnormalities a finding of direct relevance to poultry hatchery management
(Raza et al., 2023). The ethanolic extract exhibited neuroprotective effects against chlorpyrifos-induced cerebral toxicity in rats, associated with improved neurobehavioural performance including locomotion, anxiety and working memory
(Chira et al., 2025).
Critical appraisal
The evidence base for
U. dioica includes both rodent and poultry embryo models, which represents a strength relative to many other plants in this review. However, dose-response relationships have not been systematically established and in vivo poultry or ruminant efficacy studies are still needed.
Lavandula stoechas
Studies on
Lavandula stoechas have revealed a rich diversity of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, terpenes and phenolic acids. Pharmacological investigations have further elucidated the therapeutic potential of its extracts and isolated constituents. Experimental evidence demonstrates that
L. stoechas possesses antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective properties, along with promising therapeutic potential in the management of anxiety, insomnia and dermatological disorders (
Ahamad et al., 2025).
Essential oils from
Lavandula stoechas demonstrated protective effects against deltamethrin-induced hematological and biochemical toxicity in female rabbits by improving hematological parameters and reducing biochemical markers associated with tissue damage. Deltamethrin exposure significantly increased serum liver enzyme levels and impaired renal function, indicating oxidative stress-mediated organ injury
(Chaouchi et al., 2025).
Similarly, previous experimental studies reported that
Lavandula stoechas essential oil protected male mice against malathion-induced reproductive toxicity. Administration of the essential oil improved sperm quality, reduced lipid peroxidation and restored antioxidant enzyme activities, thereby mitigating oxidative stress and reproductive tissue damage caused by pesticide exposure
(Selmi et al., 2018).
Critical appraisal
Although the available animal studies suggest promising protective and therapeutic effects of
L. stoechas, several limitations should be critically considered. Most studies have been conducted in rodents, rabbits, or plant bioassays, with very limited research in livestock species , further standardized, mechanistic and long-term in vivo studies are necessary to establish its efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics and clinical applicability in veterinary and biomedical medicine Controlled clinical trials in farm animals and companion animals are required before therapeutic recommendations can be made.
Camellia sinensis (Green tea)
Green tea polyphenols, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), caffeine, theanine and tea polysaccharides exhibit anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, neuroprotective and antidiabetic pharmacological activities
(Zhao et al., 2022). EGCG acts as a potent ROS scavenger and activates Nrf2-mediated antioxidant gene expression.
Green tea extract has been shown to reduce malathion-induced hepatic damage in rodents, normalizing serum ALT and AST and restoring antioxidant enzyme activity
(Mehri et al., 2016). Similarly, it mitigated methomyl-induced toxicity by improving liver enzyme profiles and enhancing antioxidant defence
(Mansour et al., 2018).
Critical appraisal
Available evidence is limited to rodent studies using hepatotoxic pesticides. The application of green tea extracts or EGCG supplementation in livestock feed as a prophylactic strategy against pesticide-related oxidative stress warrants investigation, particularly given the widespread availability and safety profile of green tea polyphenols.
Zingiber officinale (Ginger)
Ginger contains phenolic compounds (gingerols, shogaols, paradols) and terpene constituents that collectively confer antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and neuroprotective properties
(Mao et al., 2019; Paudel et al., 2025). Its broad pharmacological profile encompasses potential preventive roles in neurodegenerative disease, cardiovascular conditions and metabolic disorders.
Ginger was shown to ameliorate organophosphate (dichlorvos)-induced oxidative stress in rat brain, with improvement in antioxidant enzyme activities and reduction in malondialdehyde levels
(Keshav et al., 2024). Given the widespread use of dichlorvos and related organophosphates in livestock environments, this finding has direct translational relevance.
Critical appraisal
Evidence for ginger’s anti-pesticide activity is limited to a single rodent study involving a single pesticide. Future research should assess ginger’s efficacy against the multiple organophosphate and pyrethroid compounds commonly encountered in livestock settings, as well as its safety profile at doses relevant to feed supplementation in food-producing animals.
Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera, a rapidly growing tree of the Moringaceae family, is renowned as a highly nutritive plant. Its leaves are rich in vitamins, carotenoids, amino acids, minerals, flavonoids, alkaloids and unique phenolic compounds including quercetin, zeatin, apigenin and kaempferol
(Athira et al., 2024; Pareek et al., 2023).
Dietary supplementation with
M. oleifera seeds or leaves has demonstrated efficacy against chlorpyrifos-induced growth retardation, immune suppression, oxidative stress and DNA damage in
Oreochromis niloticus (an important aquaculture species)
(Ibrahim et al., 2019). The ethanolic leaf extract protected against thioacetamide-induced hepatotoxicity through modulation of cellular antioxidant, apoptotic and inflammatory markers
(Mousa et al., 2019). Similarly, it demonstrated hepato- and nephroprotective activities against carbofuran toxicity in rats (
Al-Sayed et al., 2020).
The nutritional richness of
M. oleifera makes it particularly attractive as a livestock feed supplement. Its established safety in ruminant and poultry nutrition systems positions it as one of the most practically applicable plants reviewed here.
Critical appraisal
Evidence from both rodent and fish models is available, with some research directly relevant to aquaculture. Importantly,
M. oleifera has already been incorporated into livestock feed systems in several countries, which facilitates translation. However, controlled studies examining its efficacy specifically against pesticide-induced toxicity in cattle, swine, or poultry under field-relevant conditions remain to be conducted.
Bee products (Honey, Propolis, Pollen, Royal Jelly)
Bee-derived products are rich in phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids and sugars with significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. A combination of honey, propolis, palm pollen and royal jelly mitigated the haematological, renal and hepatic toxicities induced by sumithion (an organophosphorus insecticide) in albino rats, primarily attributed to their synergistic antioxidant activity
(Ahmed et al., 2020).
Critical appraisal
The combined product formulation makes it difficult to attribute protective effects to individual constituents. Studies using isolated components and testing against pesticides relevant to apiaries (neonicotinoids, pyrethroids) would help clarify mechanisms and may directly address colony collapse concerns in commercial beekeeping.
A summary of medicinal plants investigated for protective effects against pesticide-induced toxicity has been presented in Table 1.
Translational relevance in veterinary and animal sciences
The application of medicinal plants in mitigating pesticide toxicity carries significant translational potential for veterinary practice and livestock management. Incorporation of plant-based antioxidants into animal feed may serve as a preventive strategy against both acute and chronic pesticide exposure in food-producing animals. Phytogenic feed additives containing quercetin, curcumin, green tea extracts and ginger are already under evaluation in livestock nutrition research, suggesting a feasible pathway from bench to farm.
Aquatic and animal model studies collectively demonstrate that pesticide exposure induces oxidative stress, immunosuppression, endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity across species, while phytochemicals significantly ameliorate these effects
(Moezzi et al., 2025). Furthermore, combined pesticide exposures-increasingly common in real-world agricultural settings-exacerbate hepatic oxidative damage, emphasising the need for robust natural protective interventions
(Zhang et al., 2025).
Key practical considerations for livestock application include:
•
Dose standardization: Effective concentrations must be established for each target species, as metabolic rates and bioavailability differ substantially between rodents and livestock.
•
Bioavailability enhancement: Formulation strategies (nanoparticles, microencapsulation) may be needed for lipophilic compounds such as curcumin.
•
Food safety evaluation: In food-producing animals, the potential transfer of phytochemical residues to milk, eggs, or meat must be assessed to ensure human food safety.
•
Regulatory status: Regulatory frameworks for phytogenic feed additives vary internationally; approval processes must be considered before large-scale livestock application.
