The Toda buffalo is an indigenous breed of buffalo exclusively raised by the Toda tribal community in the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu, India. The breed plays a crucial role in the community’s livelihood and holds deep cultural and religious significance. The Toda buffalo breed is officially recognized and registered as a distinct buffalo breed by the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Karnal. It is classified as a region-specific or localized breed, mainly distributed in the higher altitudes of the Nilgiris. The animals are well adapted to the cold climate, hilly terrain and natural grazing conditions of this area (Nivsarkar et al., 2000; Raja et al., 2012). Toda buffaloes are medium-sized animals with a strong body structure. They usually have a black or dark brown coat and their horns are long and curved. Compared to improved breeds, their milk yield is lower, but the milk is rich in fat and has good nutritional quality. More importantly, the breed is known for its hardiness, disease resistance and ability to survive under low-input systems. The management system followed by the Toda community is mostly traditional. Buffaloes are allowed to graze freely on natural pastures and there is very little use of concentrate feed or modern housing. Calves stay with their mothers and depend mainly on milk and grazing. Because of this, the growth pattern of calves may be different from those raised under intensive farm conditions.
       
In recent years, there has been concern about the declining population of Toda buffalo due to changes in land use, reduced grazing areas and shifts in traditional practices. Reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization also highlight that many indigenous livestock breeds are at risk and need proper conservation efforts (FAO, 2015). Even though the Toda buffalo is important from both cultural and genetic points of view, scientific information on its growth performance, especially during the early life stage, is limited. The pre-weaning period is very important because it affects the future health, productivity and survival of the animal (Tiwari et al., 2007). Studies on improved buffalo breeds like Murrah, Surti and Nili-Ravi have shown that factors such as sex, age, parity and management practices significantly influence calf growth (Bhatia et al., 1980; Pathak and Tiwari, 2013; Mondal et al., 2018). Typically, male calves exhibit better growth performance compared to females due to physiological and hormonal differences (Turan et al., 2021). Parity of the dam also affects calf growth, especially during the early pre-weaning period, as older dams usually produce more milk and provide better maternal care (Kumar et al., 2012). Despite its importance as a rare and endangered indigenous genetic resource, there is limited scientific information on the pre-weaning growth of Toda buffalo calves under traditional tribal management.
       
Establishing reliable baseline data on pre-weaning growth using appropriate statistical methods is essential for conservation, nutritional and genetic improvement initiatives. Therefore, this present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of age, sex and parity on pre-weaning growth performance and average daily gain (ADG) of Toda buffalo calves reared under tribal conditions in the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu with a particular focus on the differences between male and female calves. The analysis used repeated measures ANOVA and independent samples t-tests to assess the effects of age, sex and the interaction between age and sex on body weight and ADG.

Study area and animals
 
The study was conducted in the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu under traditional tribal management conditions. Toda buffalo calves reared in various munds (tribal settlements) were included. A total of 75 calves (35 males and 40 females) born during the study period were selected and monitored from birth up to 90 days of age.
 
Management practices
 
The calves were raised under traditional Toda management systems. They were allowed to nurse from their mothers, natural weaning is practiced and graze freely on natural pastures. However, in the semi-intensive conservation unit maintained at the research station, calves were weaned at 90 days of age. Hence, body weights recorded up to 90 days were considered as pre-weaning growth data for this study. No concentrated feed was provided. The housing arrangements were traditional shelters commonly found in Toda settlements.
 
Data collection
 
Body weights were recorded within 24 hours of birth and at 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days of age using a digital weighing scale.
       
The average daily gain (ADG) was calculated for each growth period using the formula:

 
Where,
W1 and W2 = Body weights recorded at the beginning and end of each interval, respectively.
t = Number of days between measurements.

Statistical analysis
 
The data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA to evaluate the effects of age, sex, parity and the interaction between them on body weight and ADG.
 

Y_ijkl = μ + α_i + s_j+p_k+(αXs)_ij+(αXp)_ik+ e_ijkl

 
Y_ijkl = Body weight or ADG measured on ijkl^th animal.
μ = Overall population mean.
a_i = Fxed effect associated with i^th age (i = birth, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days).
s_j = Fixed effect associated with j^th sex (j = male or female)
      p_k is the fixed effect associated with k^th parity (k =1, 2, 3 or 4) (αXs)_ij and (aXp)_ik is the interaction effect.
e_ijkl = Random error.
       
Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the growth performance between male and female calves at each age and growth interval.

Overall pre-weaning growth performance
 
The growth performance of Toda buffalo calves under tribal conditions is summarized in Table 1. The average birth weight of the calves was 25.47±0.47 kg, which steadily increased to 65.44 ± 0.57 kg by 90 days of age. The gradual increase in body weight across different age periods indicates healthy growth, even in a low-input management system followed by the Toda community. A repeated measure ANOVA showed a highly significant effect of age (P<0.01) on body weight, indicating consistent growth throughout the pre-weaning period. Similar age-related increases in body weight have been observed in Murrah, Surti and Nili-Ravi buffalo calves in various studies (Bhatia et al., 1980; Tiwari et al., 2007; Mondal et al., 2018). This growth pattern confirms the ability of Toda buffalo calves to thrive in the challenging environment of the Nilgiris. Repeated measures ANOVA results presented (Table 1) indicated that Sex also had a significant effect (P<0.01) on body weight which emphasize that male calves were heavier than female calves.However, the interaction between age and sex was not significant (P>0.05), which means that both male and female calves followed a similar growth pattern over time.


 
Effect of sex on body weight
 
Independent samples t-test revealed that the differences between male and female calves were statistically significant (P<0.01) at all ages. Table 2 shows that male calves were consistently heavier than female calves at every growth stage. Male calves weighed 26.83±0.74 kg at birth and reached 67.30±0.91 kg by 90 days, while female calves weighed 24.11±1.14 kg at birth and 63.58±0.68 kg at 90 days. The quicker growth of male calves is likely due to natural differences in body structure, such as higher levels of anabolic hormones like testosterone, greater muscle development and better ability to use feed and nutrients (Ahmad et al., 1989; Tiwari et al., 2007; Pathak and Tiwari, 2013). Similar sex differences in calf growth have been observed in Murrah buffalo (Mondal et al., 2018), Surti buffalo (Bhatia et al., 1980) and native cattle breeds (Gaur et al., 2016), demonstrating that sex plays a major role in early growth regardless of management practices. These findings emphasize that sex plays an important role in early growth performance of Toda buffalo calves.


 
Effect of parity on calf growth
 
Parity had a significant effect on body weight at birth and up to 75 days of age (P<0.05), but not at 90 days, which suggests that maternal influences decrease as calves grow older (Table 3). Calves born to first-time mothers (parity 1) had the lowest body weights throughout the pre-weaning period, while those from fourth-time mothers (parity 4) had the highest weights at all ages. Birth weights increased from 23.43 ± 1.14 kg in parity 1 to 27.73 ± 0.85 kg in parity 4, indicating improved uterine conditions, better body reserves in mothers, and increased milk production with age. Parity had significant influence on body weight up to 75 days of age. Calves born to higher parity dams recorded better growth performance compared to calves born to first parity dams. This could be due to better maternal ability and milk production in mature dams. Similar observations were reported (Kumar et al., 2012) in buffalo calves, Nili-Ravi buffalo (Pasha and Hayat, 2012), and buffalo calves (Singh et al., 2019). The lack of a significant parity effect at 90 days suggests that as calves rely more on grazing, the influence of the mother declines.


 
Growth performance under tribal management
 
The growth performance observed in this studyis particularly noteworthy because no concentrates were used and calves relied solely on natural grass and mother’s milk.Toda buffalo calves achieved adequate pre-weaning weights, demonstrating the breed’s ability to survive and grow in the challenging hill environment of the Nilgiris. Compared to Murrah buffalo calves, which are intensively farmed and have average daily gains ranging from 0.55 to 0.65 kg/day, Toda calves showed a moderate yet efficient growth rate under low-input conditions (Tiwari et al., 2007; Mondal et al., 2018). This highlights the importance of protecting indigenous breeds that are well-suited to local environments rather than comparing them directly to high-input commercial breeds.
 
Average daily gain (ADG)
 
The overall ADG of calves varied significantly across different age intervals (F = 12.14; P<0.001), which shows that there is a significant difference in growth rate at different stages of pre-weaning period. Table 4 shows that the highest ADG was observed during the early growth phase.



An independent samples t-test (Table 5) revealed that the differences in ADG between males and females were age-specific. Table 4 shows that male calves had significantly higher ADG during 15-30 days and 75-90 days (P<0.05), while no significant differences were noted in other intervals. In contrast to the ADG of 450 g in Toda Buffaloes, Singh et al. (2024) observed higher average daily gain of 650 g in Murrah calves. However Rodríguez-Florentino et al. (2023) observed the ADG of 400g to 600g in buffalo calves.


       
The repeated measures ANOVA showed that the overall effect of sex on ADG was not significant (P>0.05), suggesting similar average growth rates in male and female calves. However, the results showed a significant age × sex interaction effect for ADG (F=3.03; P=0.013), indicating that the differences in growth rates between males and females varied across age intervals. These findings suggest that although the overall growth rates between males and females were similar, males showed better growth during specific periods. The present findings are in agreement with recent studies conducted in indigenous buffalo breeds under field conditions. Pasha and Hayat (2012) reported that management system and maternal influence significantly affect pre-weaning growth in Nili-Ravi buffalo calves. Likewise, Mondal et al. (2018) observed better growth performance in male Murrah buffalo calves during early life. The growth pattern observed in Toda buffalo calves indicates good adaptability of this breed to low-input tribal production systems of the Nilgiris.

This study provides detailed baseline data on the pre-weaning growth performance of Toda buffalo calves raised under traditional tribal management in the Nilgiris. The result clearly shows that body weight increased with age, indicating normal and consistent growth under an extensive management system. Sex was a major factor in calf growth, with male calves consistently weighing more than female calves from birth to 90 days. Parity had a significant impact during early growth stages, with calves from higher-parity dams showing higher body weights. Despite the lack of feeding with concentrates and minimal management, Toda buffalo calves achieved good pre-weaning weights, highlighting the breed’s adaptability, resilience and efficient use of natural resources. These findings emphasize the genetic potential of the Toda buffalo and its suitability for sustainable livestock farming in fragile hill regions. As the results highlight the potential of Toda buffalo for sustainable livestock production in hill ecosystems, necessary policy may be framed to conserve the Toda buffalo in the hilly region and further research on exploring the genetic, nutritional potential of the breed may be conducted to promote in-situ conservation of the Toda-buffalo breed in Tamil Nadu.

On behalf of all authors, I hereby declare that they have no conflict of interest. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript and agree with its submission for publication.