Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Nutritional Importance of Finger Millet: A Review

T
T.S. Jagadale1,*
D
D D. Ahire1
S
S.B. Palve1
S
S.G. Auti2
1Department of Botany, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahilyanagar-414 001, Maharashtra, Inida.
2Department of Botany, HPT. Art’s and RYK Science College, Nashik- 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

  • Submitted06-03-2026|

  • Accepted17-07-2026|

  • First Online 07-08-2026|

  • doi 10.18805/BKAP926

ABSTRACT

Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] is an important crop of the Poaceae family and a staple food for millions of people in Asia and Africa. Originating in East Africa, it was later introduced to India, which is now one of its major producers. The crop is valued for its adaptability to marginal environments, drought tolerance, low-input cultivation and excellent storage ability. It is also recognized as a nutrient-rich cereal owing to its high calcium, dietary fiber, protein, essential amino acids, minerals and bioactive compounds. Information on the nutritional composition, genetic diversity and improvement of ragi has been generated through morphological, biochemical and molecular studies. DNA marker systems such as RAPD, SSR and ISSR, along with genomics-based approaches, have been employed to assess genetic variability, population structure and traits related to nutrition and stress tolerance. Studies have revealed considerable genetic diversity among ragi germplasm and significant variation in nutritional traits. The grain contains high levels of calcium, iron, dietary fiber, protein and bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. Molecular tools have facilitated the identification of superior genotypes and supported the development of nutritionally enhanced and stress-tolerant cultivars, emphasizing the crop’s importance for sustainable agriculture and food security.

INTRODUCTION

Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], named for its panicle-shaped inflorescence with finger-like spikes, is an ancient cereal widely cultivated in South Asia and Africa (De Wet, 2006; Quattrocchi, 2006). Each spike bears numerous spikelets containing small seeds (Dida et al., 2006). The grain is valued for its long storage life and resilience under drought conditions, making it a reliable staple food (FAO, 2012). Traditionally consumed as cooked grain, sprouts and fermented beverages, it also serves as feed for young or recovering animals in certain regions (Sampath, 1986).
       
Nutritionally, the grains is distinguished by its high calcium (344 mg/gm) and iron (3.9 mg/gm) content (Gopalan et al., 2009), abundant polyphenols with antioxidant properties (Geetha et al., 1990) and slowly digesting starch that supports sustained energy release (Wadikar et al., 2007). It provides 5-8% protein, 65-75% carbohydrates, 15-20% dietary fibre and 2.5-3.5% minerals (Chethan and Malleshi, 2007). The grain also contains essential amino acids, phosphate and vitamins, making it a cost-effective source of nutrition, particularly in mountainous regions (Gopalan et al., 2004).
       
With growing consumer awareness of health benefits, ragi flour has gained popularity for its role in managing anaemia, cholesterol, bone health and weight loss. Its resistant starches and nutrient density have encouraged the development of diverse value-added products such as noodles, biscuits, cookies and health drinks (Wadikar et al., 2007). Improved post-harvest processing and urban cultivation have further enhanced its accessibility, positioning ragi as a sustainable and affordable nutritional resource.
 
History and origin
 
Finger millet is a widely cultivated grain in Africa and India (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). It was domesticated about 5000 years ago in the highlands of Eastern Africa, making it the oldest known tropical African cereal (Joshi et al., 2021). Historical, linguistic and distributional evidence supports its African origin, from where it spread to India around 3000 years ago, southern Africa 800 years ago and later to South East Asia (Bhat et al., 2018). Archaeological and botanical studies confirm its domestication in East Africa, particularly Ethiopia, with E. coracana subsp. africana identified as its closest wild relative (De Wet and Huckabay, 1966; Hilu and De Wet, 1976). All cultivated forms belong to E. coracana subsp. coracana, distinguished by inflorescence morphology and geographic distribution (Hilu and De Wet, 1976).
       
In India, ragi is a major crop, especially in Maharashtra, where it occupies nearly half of the millet growing area and it two thirds of small millet production (Gurav, 2019). About 120 thousand hectares are cultivated, with productivity of 908 kg/ha and annual production of 109 thousand tonnes (Prasad, 2002). It is grown across districts including Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nashik, Pune, Satara and Kolhapur, with the Konkan region having the largest acreage (Bhagat et al., 2019; Deshmukh, 2007). In irrigated areas, it is also harvested as a rabi crop, underscoring its importance in regional food security.
 
Importance of millets in changing environment
 
Millets were domesticated in Northern China as early as 10,000 years ago (Yang et al., 2005) and are typically cultivated on marginal soils with low fertility and limited rainfall. The seven major millets grown worldwide include finger millet, pearl millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, proso millet, kodo millet and little millet. As climate change reduces yields of staple cereals, millets have gained importance for their resilience. Being C4 plants, they exhibit high photosynthetic efficiency, short growth cycles and strong tolerance to heat and drought.
       
India is the largest producer, contributing 38-40% of global millet output, followed by African nations such as Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad and China (Chandra et al., 2016). Major producing states include Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. However, between 2016-17, millet cultivation area declined by nearly 60% due to changing consumption patterns, land conversion to rice and wheat, low yields and reduced demand, leading to nutritional deficiencies and malnutrition. To address this, multidisciplinary approaches have been adopted by Indian and international organizations to improve productivity (Baltensperger, 2002; Collett, 2013). Notably, the Pearl Millet Genome Sequencing Consortium identified genes for heat and drought tolerance, offering potential benefits for millets and other crops.
 
Genetic diversity of finger millet
 
The cultivated ragi is an allotetraploid (2n = 4X = 36, AABB) with a genomic size of 1,593 Mb (Goron and Raizada, 2015). Evidence indicates Africa as the primary centre of origin, with greater diversity observed in African germplasm compared to Indian collections. However, centuries of cultivation, natural mutations and farmer selection in India have generated a wide range of local cultivars and landraces. Analyses of Indian germplasm reveal high variability in traits such as finger length, finger width, finger number, grain yield, ear weight, biomass and leaf number, supporting India as a secondary centre of diversity (Gopalan et al., 1999).
       
This millet is a major food grains in Asia and Africa (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). Beyond its nutritional value, the crop is notable for environmental sustainability, particularly its long shelf life, which reduces post harvest losses (Kumar et al., 2016). Breeding progress for yield and related traits is genetically regulated, environmentally influenced and shaped by the extent of genetic diversity (Wright, 1921; Fisher, 1936). The availability of diverse germplasm and variability within populations are key drivers of improvement through conventional breeding methods (Krishna et al., 2008). In India, several varieties have recently been released through different breeding practices, as summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: State wise varieties of finger millet till 2023 in India.


 
Nutritional value
 
Carbohydrates
 
Carbohydrates are essential for energy metabolism, regulation of blood sugar and insulin, cholesterol balance and fermentation processes in the human body. Glucose derived from dietary carbohydrates serves as fuel, with excess stored in the liver and muscles. Finger millet is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre, making it nutritionally valuable, particularly in regions such as Karnataka where it remains a staple (Chandra et al., 2016).
       
The total carbohydrate content of ragi ranges from 72 to 79.5% (Pore and Magar, 1979; Hulse et al., 1981; Joshi and Katoch, 1990; Bhatt et al., 2003). Starch is the major component, reported between 59.4 and 70.2% (Pore and Magar, 1979; Wankhede et al., 1979; Antony et al., 1996; Nirmala et al., 2000; Mittal, 2002). Starch granules are polygonal and rhombic in shape (Jideani et al., 1996), with 80-85% amylopectin and 15-20% amylose (Wankhede et al., 1979; Jideani et al., 1996). Non starch polysaccharides account for 20-30% of total carbohydrates (Bhatt et al., 2003). Reducing sugars are reported in the range of 1.2-1.8% (Pore and Magar, 1979), while Nirmala et al. (2000) found 1.5% reducing sugar and 0.03% non reducing sugar.
 
Protein
 
Proteins are vital biomolecules that catalyze reactions, regulate gene expression, form cellular structures and support immunity and muscle function. The grains contains approximately 7% protein, though reported values range from 5.6 to 12.7% depending on genotype and environment (Joshi and Katoch, 1990; Ravindran, 1991; Antony et al., 1996; Vadivoo et al., 1998; Mushtari, 1998; Bhatt et al., 2003). Singh and Srivastava (2006) observed protein levels between 4.88-15.58% across 16 varieties, while Kazi et al. (2022) reported 3.55-9.90% in 64 landraces. Brown seeded types generally show higher protein content than white types (Vadivoo et al., 1998). Prolamin is the major protein fraction, accounting for 24.6-36.2% of total protein (Lupien, 1990) and soluble proteins are present at 99.1 mg/100 gm (Antony and Chandra, 1998).
       
The grain is notable for its essential amino acid profile, contributing 44.7% of total amino acids compared to 33.9% in many cereals (Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000). Key amino acids include tryptophan, threonine, valine, isoleucine and methionine (Thaguna et al., 2022). These play roles in muscle repair, bone development, metabolism, nitrogen balance and antioxidant production (Zhang et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2012; Fathima, 2023). Methionine, often deficient in other cereals, provides sulphur for glutathione synthesis, the body’s natural antioxidant. Lecithin and methionine also aid in cholesterol regulation by reducing liver fat (Devi et al., 2014).
       
At the molecular level, transcription factors such as Opaque2 and PBF regulate seed storage proteins. Opaque2 modifiers influence lysine and tryptophan metabolism, enhancing nutritional quality (Babu et al., 2015). Orthologs of these genes, along with calcium transporters and calmodulin, have been identified in ragi (Reddy et al., 2011; Nirgude et al., 2014). Compared to other millets, finger millet provides higher levels of valine, threonine and lysine, while tryptophan contributes to appetite regulation and weight management (Asritha, 2021). Its combination of protein, amino acids and fibre underscores its role as a functional food supporting metabolic health.
 
Crude fibre and fatty acids content
 
Dietary fibre, though indigestible, plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar, satiety and digestive health. Crude fibre in ragi has been reported between 1.2-1.4% (Seetharam, 2001), 1.3-1.8% (Bhatt et al., 2003; Singh et al., 2003; Malleshi and Desikachar, 1986; Lupien, 1990), 2.1% (Antony et al., 1996), 3.6% (Kamath and Belavady, 1980) and 3.7% (Joshi and Katoch, 1990). Total dietary fibre (TDF) is reported at 12%, with insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) at 11% and soluble dietary fibre (SDF) at 2% (Ramulu and Rao, 1997). The garin contains about 18.6% dietary fibre, comprising 5.1% non cellulosic polysaccharides, 4.7% cellulose and 7.9% lignin (Kamath and Belavady, 1980). Compared to other cereals, ragi has ~22% more fibre, with wheat, rice, maize and sorghum containing 12.6%, 4.5%, 13.4% and 12.8% respectively (Klopfenstein, 2000). High fibre intake is associated with delayed nutrient absorption, reduced blood lipids, protection against colon cancer and improved intestinal mobility (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003). Its gluten free nature also makes it suitable for individuals with gluten sensitivity (Hulse et al., 1981; Reed, 1976; Subbarao, 2002).
       
Lipids, though present in low amounts, contribute to energy metabolism and cellular function. Total lipid content in ragi is reported at 5.2% (free lipids 2.2%; bound lipids 2.4%; structural lipids 0.6%) (Sridhar and Lakshminarayana, 1994). Fatty acid composition shows 25.6% saturated and 74.4% unsaturated fatty acids, with oleic acid, palmitic acid and linoleic acid as major components and linolenic acid as minor (Sridhar and Lakshminarayana, 1994). Black finger millet contains 8.71 mg/gm dry weight fatty acids and 8.47 mg/gm dry weight protein (Gupta, 2014). Non polar lipids account for 80%, glycolipids 6% and phospholipids 14% (Antony et al., 1996). The high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids enhances its nutritional quality.
 
Minerals
 
Minerals are essential dietary components, supporting bone formation, muscle and nerve function, water balance and the activity of hormones and enzymes. This millet exhibits higher ash content than many cereals, ranging from 1.7-4.13% (Rao et al., 1973; Singh and Srivastava, 2006), with most studies reporting 2.1-2.7% (Samantaray and Samantaray, 1997; Bhatt et al., 2003; Mushtari, 1998; Malleshi and Desikachar, 1986; Lupien, 1990). Sixteen varieties showed ash values between 1.47-2.58% with a mean of 2.11% (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Environmental and genetic factors strongly influence mineral content (Kazi et al., 2017). Ragi flour was successfully used to prepare acceptable nutritious cookies by replacing refined flour up to 50%, while also improving mineral, fiber, calcium, iron, phosphorus, copper and zinc content (Sinha and Sharma, 2017).
       
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in ragi. Across 36 genotypes, calcium ranged from 162-487 mg/gm with a mean of 320.8 mg/gm (Vadivoo et al., 1998). White varieties averaged 329 mg/gm compared to 296 mg/gm in brown types (Seetharam, 2001). Bhatt et al., (2003) reported 344 mg/gm, while some germplasm lines reached 450 mg/gm (Panwar et al., 2010). This millet contains 5–30 times more calcium than other cereals (National Research Council, 1996), making it a natural source for preventing osteoporosis and supporting bone health (Desai et al., 2010). Transcriptome studies have identified calcium transporters, calmodulin and Ca dependent protein kinases as regulators of grain calcium accumulation (Kumar et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2014; Sood et al., 2016).
       
Iron content varies widely, from 3.3-14.8 mg/gm (Babu et al., 1987). Sixteen varieties showed 3.61-5.42 mg/gm with a mean of 4.40 mg/gm (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Ragi is recognized as an excellent natural source of iron, effective in improving anaemia (Kaur et al., 2022). Zinc ranged from 0.92-2.55 mg/gm (mean 1.34 mg/gm), while phosphorus ranged from 130-295 mg/gm (mean 180.43 mg/gm) (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Ragi also contains potassium, magnesium, copper, sodium and phosphorus in significant amounts (Obilana et al., 2002). Magnesium content ranged from 142 to 193 mg/100 g, with KFMG 2239 lowest, KFMG 2262 highest and Phule Nachani and Phule Kasari at 167 and 156 mg/100 g, respectively (Ghogare et al., 2025).
       
The grain flour, rich in calcium, iron and amino acids, is widely used in porridge, dosas and roti (Shobana et al., 2013). Its nutritional value makes it suitable for infant weaning foods and contributes to livestock feed (Kumar et al., 2012). With higher potassium (344 mg/gm) and calcium (408 mg/gm) compared to rice, ragi supports teeth and bone health and offers protection against malnutrition, diabetes and hypertension (Jayawardana et al., 2022; Shobana et al., 2013).
 
Vitamins
 
Vitamins are essential for biological processes such as immunity, wound repair, bone development and hormone regulation. This millet is a good source of B complex vitamins, including thiamin, riboflavin and niacin, as well as tocopherols (vitamin E) (Obilana and Manyasa, 2002). Both water soluble and fat soluble vitamins have been reported, including vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin E (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1995).
       
Carotene content has been reported at 45 μg/100 gm (Gopalan et al., 1999), though other studies found lower β carotene levels of 0-1 μg/100 gm (Bhaskaracharya, 2001). Vitamin A values vary: Edu NAP (1996) reported six retinol equivalents, while Ramashia et al. (2019) found 6.0 mg/100 gm. Vitamin C content has been reported between 0.0-1.0 mg/100 gm (Shobana et al., 2013)                                        

This millet also contains nitriloside (vitamin B17), a compound noted for selective toxicity against cancer cells, suggesting potential therapeutic applications without adverse side effects. Its vitamin profile, combined with high mineral and fibre content, enhances its role as a functional food for health promotion.                     
                                                                                        
The nutritional composition of grains is presented in Table 2. It contains 336 kcal energy, 7.7 gm protein, 1.5 gm fat, 72.6 gm carbohydrates, 11.5 gm fibre, 350 mg calcium, 283 mg phosphorus, 3.9 mg iron, 2.3 mg zinc, 11 mg sodium and 408 mg potassium per 100 gm (Porwal et al., 2023).                    

Table 2: Nutritional composition of finger millet.

                                                                                                                                        

Molecular characterization
 
Initial molecular characterization of finger millet relied on RAPD markers, which provided a rapid and economical means of assessing genetic variability among landraces and cultivated types. These studies revealed substantial polymorphism and established foundational diversity patterns (Jadav et al., 2023). With methodological advances, SSR markers became widely adopted due to their reproducibility and codominant inheritance, enabling finer discrimination among accessions. Extensive SSR based analyses highlighted pronounced differences between Indian and exotic germplasm, generating valuable insights for breeding programs (Babu et al., 2017).
       
ISSR markers were subsequently applied to traditional cultivars and hybrid lines, confirming the broad genetic base and adaptability of ragi across diverse agro climatic regions (Venkatesan et al., 2021). Genome wide studies using high throughput genotyping and conserved germplasm collections at ICRISAT further clarified population structure, genetic variation and evolutionary dynamics, reinforcing the crop’s resilience and nutritional importance (Backiyalakshmi et al., 2021). More recently, integration of biochemical profiling with molecular marker analyses has linked nutritional traits, such as protein content, amino acid composition and antioxidant activity to genetic diversity, aiding the identification of superior landraces for functional food development (Solanki and Patel, 2023). Omics driven approaches, including genomics, transcriptomics and molecular breeding, now provide a strong foundation for trait improvement and sustainable nutritional security (Kayastha et al., 2024).
       
Functional SSRs have also been developed to explore variation in opaque2 (o2) modifiers influencing tryptophan concentration. Babu et al., (2014) created 67 SSRs from EST sequences of maize and sorghum o2 modifiers, transcription factors and candidate genes in lysine and tryptophan pathways. Using these markers, Sood et al., (2016) classified 190 global genotypes into three clusters: Cluster A with medium tryptophan (0.70-0.85%), Cluster B with high levels (>0.85%) and Cluster C with mostly <0.7%. A few genotypes, including IE5106, IE6350, GE4449, VHC3903, VHC3870 and GE4811, exhibited ~0.9% tryptophan, highlighting their potential as nutritionally superior breeding material (Sood et al., 2016).
 
Antioxidant activity
 
Dietary antioxidants protect cells from oxidative damage by scavenging free radicals, thereby reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders and cancer. Major plant-derived antioxidants include carotenoids, polyphenols and vitamins C and E (Manach et al., 2004; Baiano et al., 2016). Finger millet is rich in bioactive compounds such as phenols, tannins, phytates, flavonoids and enzyme inhibitors, which are now recognized for their nutraceutical and antioxidant properties (Thompson, 1993). Phenolic compounds, particularly tannins, are abundant in grains of ragi (Ramachandra et al., 1977; Serna-Saldivar et al., 1995; McDonough et al., 2000) and exhibit strong free radical scavenging activity (Subbarao et al., 2002; Sripriya et al., 1996), contributing to protection against cancer, cardiovascular diseases and ageing-related disorders (Bravo, 1998; Rice-Evans et al., 1997; Scalbert et al., 2005).
       
Tannin content varies widely among grain types, with higher levels in red-brown grains than white grains (Asquith and Butler, 1986). This millet also contains phytates (0.48%), trypsin inhibitors (0.61%), dietary fibre and carotenoids, further enhancing its antioxidant potential (Mathanghi, 2012). Animal studies have confirmed its ability to reduce oxidative stress (Rajasekaran et al., 2004), while malted ragi beverages also possess high antioxidant activity (Chandrasekara et al., 2010). These properties highlight the importance of conserving finger millet landraces as valuable nutritional resources (Kazi et al., 2022).
 
Antidiabetic activity
 
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder caused by impaired insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. It is a major global health concern and is associated with reduced life expectancy, renal failure, blindness and substantial socioeconomic burdens (Patel et al., 2012; Keerthana et al., 2013). Ragi exhibits significant anti-diabetic potential due to its high dietary fibre, flavonoids and polyphenols, which help reduce hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress (Devi et al., 2014). It also contains trypsin inhibitory factors and phytic acid (0.48% each), which lower the glycaemic index by reducing intestinal absorption of proteins and carbohydrates (Devi et al., 2014). Furthermore, this millet modulates gut microbiota by promoting beneficial microorganisms and suppressing harmful microbes, thereby enhancing its anti-diabetic effects (Sarma et al., 2018).

CONCLUSION

Finger millet is a nutrient-rich and climate-resilient food grains with immense potential to improve global food and nutritional security. It is an excellent source of calcium, iron, dietary fibre, essential amino acids and bioactive compounds, making it a valuable functional food. Its health-promoting properties help reduce the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and oxidative stress. The crop is well adapted to marginal lands, requires low agricultural inputs and performs well under drought conditions, making it suitable for climate-smart agriculture. Its rich genetic diversity, supported by advances in molecular breeding and genomics, offers significant opportunities for developing high-yielding and nutrient-dense cultivars. Conservation of finger millet landraces and promotion of value-added products will enhance its utilization and commercial importance. Therefore, continued research, genetic improvement and wider cultivation of this millet are essential for achieving sustainable agriculture, improving rural livelihoods and ensuring future food and nutritional security.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by the Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj Research, Training and Human Development Institute (SARTHI), Pune, Maharashtra, through financial assistance. The authors sincerely acknowledge SARTHI for its valuable support. The authors also express their sincere gratitude to the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahilyanagar and the Department of Botany for their continuous guidance, encouragement and institutional support during the preparation of this review article.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
Not applicable. This article is a review based entirely on published literature and does not involve human participants, animal experiments, or clinical studies.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. The funding agency had no role in the conceptualization, literature collection, interpretation of published findings, preparation of the manuscript, or the decision to publish this review article.

REFERENCES


  1. Antony, U. and Chandra, T.S. (1998). Antinutrient reduction and enhancement in protein, starch and mineral availability in fermented flour of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 46(7): 2578- 2582.

  2. Antony, U., Sripriya, G. and Chandra, T.S. (1996). Effect of fermentation on the primary nutrients in finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 44(9): 2616- 2618.

  3. Asquith, T.N. and Butler, L.G. (1986). Interactions of condensed tannins with selected proteins. Phytochemistry. 25(7): 1591- 1593.

  4. Asritha, V. (2021). A review on role of millets in weight loss. Indian Journal of Nutrition. 8(3): 1-3.

  5. Babu, B.K., Agrawal, P.K., Pandey, D. and Kumar, A. (2014). Comparative genomics and association mapping approaches for opaque2 modifier genes in finger millet accessions using genic, genomic and candidate gene-based simple sequence repeat markers. Molecular Breeding. 34(3): 1261-1279.

  6. Babu, B.K., Agrawal, P.K., Saha, S. and Gupta, H.S. (2015). Mapping QTLs for opaque2 modifiers influencing the tryptophan content in quality protein maize using genomic and candidate gene-based SSRs of lysine and tryptophan metabolic pathway. Plant Cell Reports. 34(1): 37-45.

  7. Babu, B.K., Sood, S., Agrawal, P.K., Chandrashekara, C., Kumar, A. and Kumar, A. (2017). Molecular and phenotypic characterization of 149 finger millet accessions using microsatellite and agro-morphological markers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences. 87(4): 1217-1228.

  8. Babu, B.V., Ramana, T. and Radhakrishnan, T.M. (1987). Chemical composition and protein content in hybrid varieties of finger millet. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 57(7): 520-522.

  9. Backiyalakshmi, C., Vetriventhan, M., Deshpande, S., Babu, C., Allan, V., Naresh, D. and Azevedo, V. C. (2021). Genome- wide assessment of population structure and genetic diversity of the global finger millet germplasm panel conserved at the ICRISAT Genebank. Frontiers in Plant Science. 12: 692463.

  10. Baiano, A. and Del Nobile, M.A. (2016). Antioxidant compounds from vegetable matrices: Biosynthesis, occurrence and extraction systems. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 56(12): 2053-2068.

  11. Baltensperger, D.D. (2002). Progress with proso, pearl and other millets. Trends in New Crops and New Uses. 100: 100- 103.

  12. Bhagat, S.B., Dahiphale, A.V., Mhaskar, N.V., Jondhale, D.G. and Puri, M.C. (2019). Finger millet (Eleusine coracana G.) based intercropping for food security in Konkan Region – A review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 8(1): 3065-3077.

  13. Bhaskaracharya, K. (2001). Food based strategy for combating vitamin A deficiency. Nutrition News. 21(2): 1-4.

  14. Bhat, B.V., Rao, B.D. and Tonapi, V.A. (2018). The Story of Millets. ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research and Karnataka State Department of Agriculture.

  15. Bhatt, A., Singh, V., Shrotria, P.K. and Baskheti, D.C. (2003). Coarse grains of Uttaranchal: Ensuring sustainable food and nutritional security. Indian Farmer’s Digest. 7(1): 34-38.

  16. Bravo, L. (1998). Polyphenols: Chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism and nutritional significance. Nutrition Reviews. 56(11): 317-333.

  17. Chandra, D., Chandra, S. and Sharma, A.K. (2016). Review of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn]: A powerhouse of health-benefiting nutrients. Food Science and Human Wellness. 5(3): 149-155.

  18. Chandrasekara, A. and Shahidi, F. (2010). Content of insoluble bound phenolics in millets and their contribution to antioxidant capacity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 58(11): 6706-6714.

  19. Chethan, S. and Malleshi, N.G. (2007). Finger millet polyphenols: Optimization of extraction and the effect of pH on their stability. Food Chemistry. 105(2): 862-870.

  20. Collett, I.J. (2013). Forage Sorghum and Millet. (3rd ed.). NSW Department of Primary Industries.

  21. De Wet, J.M.J. (2006). Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Record from Protabase. PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa).

  22. De Wet, J.M.J. and Huckabay, J.P. (1966). The origin of Eleusine coracana. American Journal of Botany. 53(6): 575-582.

  23. Desai, A.D., Kulkarni, S.S., Sahoo, A.K., Ranveer, R.C. and Dandge, P.B. (2010). Effect of supplementation of malted ragi flour on the nutritional and sensorial quality characteristics of cake. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2(1): 67-71.

  24. Deshmukh, G.M. (2007). Studies on effect of FYM, lime, NP fertilizer and boron on yield, nutrient uptake and quality of nagli (Eleusine coracana G.). M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Dr. BSKKV, Dapoli.

  25. Devi, P.B., Vijayabharathi, R., Sathyabama, S., Malleshi, N.G. and Priyadarisini, V. B. (2014). Health benefits of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) polyphenols and dietary fiber: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(6): 1021-1040.

  26. Dida, M.M. and Devos, K.M. (2006). Finger millet. In: Cereals and Millets. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. (pp. 333-343).

  27. Edu NAP. (1996). Finger millet. In: Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. (pp. 39-58).

  28. Fathima Sirin (2023). A review on finger millet: its nutritional value, bioactive compounds, processing and value-addition. Pharma Innov J. 12: 2193-2199.

  29. Fisher, R.A. (1936). The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. Annals of Eugenics. 7(2): 179-188.

  30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2012). Grassland Index: A Searchable Catalogue of Grass and Forage Legumes.

  31. Geetha, C., and Parvathi, P. (1990). Hypoglycemic effect of millet incorporated breakfast items on selected non-insulin dependent diabetic patients. Indian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics. 27: 316-320.

  32. Ghogare, S., Dalvi, U., Ban, Y., Lokhande, P. and Kale, A. (2025). Assessment of finger millet germplasm in relation to nutritional perspective. Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika. 40(1): 86-92. doi: 10.18805/BKAP805.

  33. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B.V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (1999). Nutritive Value of Indian Foods (B.S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition.

  34. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (2004). Nutritive value of Indian foods (B. S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition.

  35. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (2009). Nutritive value of Indian foods (B. S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR.

  36. Goron, T.L. and Raizada, M.N. (2015). Genetic diversity and genomic resources available for the small millet crops. Plant Science. 242: 132-145.

  37. Gupta, R. (2014). Ragi: A Boon to Nutritional Security. Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.

  38. Gurav, K.V. (2019). A study on recommended finger millet production technology by the farmers from Kolhapur District of Maharashtra, India. International Journal of Chemical Studies. 7(5): 2717-2720.

  39. Hilu, K.W. and De Wet, J.M.J. (1976). Domestication of Eleusine coracana. Economic Botany. 30(3): 199-208.

  40. Hulse, J.H., Laing, E.M. and Pearson, O.E. (1981). Sorghum and millets: Their composition and nutritive value (p. 997).

  41. Jadav, S.K., Narwade, A.V., Mahatma, L., Patil, H., Vadodariya, G. and Patel, P.B. (2023). Molecular characterization of finger millet genotypes through RAPD markers. The Pharma Innovation Journal. 12(11): 1736-1740.

  42. Jayawardana, S.A.S., Samarasekera, J.K.R.R., Hettiarachchi, G.H.C.M. and Gooneratne, M.J. (2022). Antidiabetic properties of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] varieties cultivated in Sri Lanka. Journal of Herbal Medicine. 32: 100534.

  43. Jideani, I., Takeda, Y. and Hizukuri, S. (1996). Structures and physiochemical properties of starches from acha (Digitaria exilis), Iburu (D. iburua) and tamba (Eleusine coracana). Cereal Chemistry. 73(6): 677-685.

  44. Joshi, H.C. and Katoch, K.K. (1990). Nutritive value of millets: A comparison with cereals and pseudocereals. Himalayan Research and Development. 9: 26-28.

  45. Joshi, R.P., Jain, A.K., Malhotra, N., and Kumari, M. (2021). Origin, Domestication and Spread. In: Millets and Pseudocereals. Woodhead Publishing. (pp. 33-38).

  46. Kamath, M.V. and Belavady, B. (1980). Unavailable carbohydrates of commonly consumed Indian foods. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 31(2): 194-202.

  47. Kaur, N., Agarwal, A., and Sabharwal, M. (2022). Food fortification strategies to deliver nutrients for the management of iron deficiency anaemia. Current Research in Food Science. 5: 2094-2107.

  48. Kayastha, S., Sahoo, J.P., Mahapatra, M. and Panda, N. (2024). Understanding the molecular breeding and omics approaches for finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) improvement towards a global sustainable nutritional security. Crop Design. 3(1): 100049.

  49. Kazi, T.S., Laware, S.L. and Auti, S.G. (2022). Analysis of nutritional diversity and antioxidant activity of finger millet landraces. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 56(1): 1-6. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.A-5741.

  50. Kazi, T. and Auti, S.G. (2017). Screening of higher mineral containing finger millet landraces from Maharashtra. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition. 2(3): 21-25.

  51. Keerthana, G., Kalaivani, M.K. and Sumathy, A. (2013). In-vitro alpha amylase inhibitory and antioxidant activities of ethanolic leaf extract of Croton bonplandianum. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 6(4): 32-36.

  52. Klopfenstein, C.F. (2000). Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. (pp. 705-723).

  53. Krishna, L., Raju, C.D. and Raju, C.S. (2008). Genetic variability and correlation in yield and grain quality characters of rice germplasm. The Andhra Agricultural Journal. 55(3): 276-279.

  54. Kumar, A., Kanwal, P., Gupta, A.K., Singh, B.R. and Gaur, V.S. (2014). A full-length Dof1 transcription factor of finger millet and its response to a circadian cycle. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 32(2): 419-427.

  55. Kumar, A., Metwal, M., Kaur, S., Gupta, A.K., Puranik, S., Singh, S. and Yadav, R. (2016). Nutraceutical value of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] and their improvement using omics approaches. Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 934.

  56. Kumar, A., Sharma, N., Panwar, P. and Gupta, A.K. (2012). Use of SSR, RAPD markers and protein profiles based analysis to differentiate Eleusine coracana genotypes differing in their protein content. Molecular Biology Reports. 39(4): 4949-4960.

  57. Lupien, J.R. (1990). Sorghum and Millets in Human Nutrition. FAO, ICRISAT.

  58. Malleshi, N.G. and Desikachar, H.S.R. (1986). Influence of malting conditions on quality of finger millet malt. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 92(1): 81-83.

  59. Manach, C., Scalbert, A., Morand, C., Rémésy, C. and Jiménez, L. (2004). Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79(5): 727- 747.

  60. Mathanghi, S.K. and Sudha, K. (2012). Functional and phytochemical properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) for health. International Journal of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Biological Sciences. 2(4): 431-438.

  61. Mbithi-Mwikya, S., Van Camp, J., Yiru, Y. and Huyghebaert, A. (2000). Nutrient and antinutrient changes in finger millet (Eleusine coracana) during sprouting. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 33(1): 9-14.

  62. McDonough, C.M., Rooney, L.W., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (2000). The millets. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. (pp. 177-201).

  63. Mittal, M. (2002). Development of finger millet and barnyard millet based convenience mixes for food products and their evaluation for nutritional quality, storage stability and acceptability [Doctoral dissertation, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology].

  64. Mushtari, B.J. (1998). Nutritive value of ragi (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) before and after malting. Beverage Food World. 25(5): 38-42.

  65. National Research Council, Policy, Global Affairs, Office of International Affairs, Board on Science and Technology for International Development. (1996). Lost crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains (Vol. 1). National Academies Press.

  66. Nirgude, M., Babu, B.K., Shambhavi, Y., Singh, U.M., Upadhyaya, H.D. and Kumar, A. (2014). Development and molecular characterization of genic molecular markers for grain protein and calcium content in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Molecular Biology Reports. 41(3): 1189- 1200.

  67. Nirmala, M., Rao, M.S. and Muralikrishna, G. (2000). Carbohydrates and their degrading enzymes from native and malted finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana, Indaf-15). Food Chemistry. 69(2): 175-180.

  68. Obilana, A.B., and Manyasa, E. (2002). Millets. In: Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals: Grain Properties and Utilization Potential [P.S. Belton and J.R.N. Taylor (Eds.)], Springer. (pp. 177-217).

  69. Panwar, P., Nath, M., Yadav, V.K. and Kumar, A. (2010). Comparative evaluation of genetic diversity using RAPD, SSR and cytochrome P450 gene based markers with respect to calcium content in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Journal of Genetics. 89(2): 121-133.

  70. Patel, D.K., Prasad, S.K., Kumar, R., and Hemalatha, S. (2012). An overview on antidiabetic medicinal plants having insulin mimetic property. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2(4): 320-330.

  71. Pore, M.S. and Magar, N.G. (1979). Nutrient composition of hybrid varieties of finger millet. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 49(7): 526-531.

  72. Porwal, A., Bhagwat, G., Sawarkar, J. and Kamble, P. (2023). An overview of millets-the nutri-cereals: Its nutritional profile, potential health benefits and sustainable cultivation approach. International Journal of Science and Research Archive. 10(1): 841-859.

  73. Prasad, R. (Ed.). (2002). Textbook of Field Crops Production: Foodgrain crops (Vol. 1). Directorate of Information and Publication of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

  74. Prasad, Rajendra, ed. (2002). Textbook of Field Crops Production: Foodgrain Crops-V. 1. Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture.

  75. Quattrocchi, U. (2006). CRC world dictionary of grasses: Common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology – 3 volume set. CRC Press.

  76. Rajasekaran, N., Nithya, M., Rose, C. and Chandra, T.S. (2004). The effect of finger millet feeding on the early responses during the process of wound healing in diabetic rats. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Basis of Disease. 1689(3): 190-201.

  77. Ramachandra, G., Virupaksha, T.K., and Shadaksharaswamy, M. (1977). Relation between tannin levels and in vitro protein digestibility in finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 25(5): 1101-1104.

  78. Ramashia, S.E., Anyasi, T.A., Gwata, E.T., Meddows-Taylor, S. and Jideani, A.I.O. (2019). Processing, nutritional composition and health benefits of finger millet in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Science and Technology. 39: 253-266.

  79. Ramulu, P. and Udayasekhara Rao, P. (1997). Effect of processing on dietary fiber content of cereals and pulses. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 50(3): 249-257.

  80. Rao, K.B., Mithyantha, M.S., Devi, L.S. and Perur, N.G. (1973). Nutrient content of some new ragi varieties. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 7(4): 562-565.

  81. Ravindran, G. (1991). Studies on millets: Proximate composition, mineral composition, phytate and oxalate contents. Food Chemistry. 39(1): 99-107.

  82. Reddy, I.N.B.L., Reddy, D.S., Narasu, M.L., and Sivaramakrishnan, S. (2011). Characterization of disease resistance gene homologues isolated from finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Molecular Breeding. 27(3): 315-328.

  83. Reed, C.F. (1976). Information summaries on 1000 economic plants. Typescripts submitted to the USDA. USA: USDA.

  84. Rice-Evans, C., Miller, N. and Paganga, G. (1997). Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds. Trends in Plant Science. 2(4): 152-159.

  85. Samantaray, G.T. and Samantaray, B. K. (1997). X-ray diffraction study of ragi (Eleusine coracana) starch. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore). 34(4): 343-344.

  86. Sampath, S.R. (1986). Scope for Using Small Millets as Forage in India. In: A. Seetharam.

  87. Sarma, S.M., Singh, D.P., Singh, P., Khare, P., Mangal, P. and Singh, S. (2018). Finger millet arabinoxylan protects mice from high-fat diet induced lipid derangements, inflammation, endotoxemia and gut bacterial dysbiosis. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 106: 994-1003.

  88. Scalbert, A., Johnson, I.T., and Saltmarsh, M. (2005). Polyphenols: Antioxidants and beyond. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 81(1 Suppl): 215S-217S.

  89. Seetharam, A. (2001). Small Millets in Indian Agriculture. In: Proceedings of the National Workshop on Small Millets. Madurai, India: ICAR-Small Millets Research Station. (pp. 1-10).

  90. Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Rooney, L.W., and Faubion, J.M. (1995). The Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Value of Sorghum and Millet. In: Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (Ed.)], St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists. 10: 97-140.

  91. Shobana, S. and Krishnaswamy, K. (2013). Nutrient composition and protein quality of the little millet, Panicum sumatrense. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 93(1): 54-61.

  92. Singh, P. and Raghuvanshi, R. (2012). Finger millet for food and nutritional security. African Journal of Food Science. 6(6): 77-84.

  93. Singh, P. and Srivastava, S. (2006). Nutritional composition of sixteen new varieties of finger millet. J. Community Mobilization Sustainable Development. 1(2): 81-84.

  94. Singh, P., Raghuvanshi, R.S., and Singh, R. (2003). Finger millet: A potential source of food security and nutrition. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 40(5): 541-546.

  95. Singh, U.M., Chandra, M., Shankhdhar, S.C. and Kumar, A. (2014). Transcriptome wide identification and validation of calcium sensor gene family in the developing spikes of finger millet genotypes for elucidating its role in grain calcium accumulation. PLoS ONE. 9(8): e103963.

  96. Sinha, R. and Sharma, B. (2017). Use of finger millet in cookies and their sensory and nutritional evaluation. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 36(3): 264-266. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.v36i03.8962.

  97. Solanki, U.B. and Patel, N.J. (2023). Biochemical molecular characterization of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn] genotypes. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research. 5(4): IJFMR23045226.

  98. Sood, S., Kumar, A., Babu, B. K., Gaur, V. S., Pandey, D., Kant, L. and Pattnayak, A. (2016). Gene discovery and advances in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] genomics- An important nutri-cereal of future. Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 1634.

  99. Sridhar, R. and Lakshminarayana, G. (1994). Contents of total lipids and lipid classes and composition of fatty acids in small millets: Foxtail (Setaria italica), proso (Panicum miliaceum) and finger (Eleusine coracana). Cereal Chemistry. 71(4): 355-359.

  100. Sripriya, G., Chandrasekharan, K. and Murty, V.S. (1996). ESR spectroscopic studies on free radical quenching action of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Food Chemistry. 57(4): 537-540.

  101. Subbarao, M.V.S.S.T. and Muralikrishna, G. (2002). Nonstarch polysaccharides and bound phenolic acids from native and malted finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana Indaf- 15). Food Chemistry. 79(2): 187-192.

  102. Thaguna, B., Rimal, A., Kaur, J., Dhakal, Y., Paudel, B., and Pokhara, B. (2022). Finger millet: A powerhouse of nutrients- Its amino acid, micronutrient profile, bioactive compounds, health benefits and value-added products. International Journal of Health Sciences. 6(S3): 2321-9459.

  103. Thapa, S., and Tamang, J.P. (2004). Product characterisation of kodo ko jaanr: Fermented finger millet beverage of the Himalayas. Food Microbiology. 21(5): 617-622.

  104. Tharanathan, R.N. and Mahadevamma, S. (2003). Grain legumes – A boon to human nutrition. Trends in Food Science and Technolog. 14(12): 507-518.

  105. Thompson, L.U. (1993). Potential health benefits and problems associated with antinutrients in foods. Food Research International. 26(2): 131-149.

  106. Vadivoo, A.S., Joseph, R. and Ganesan, N.M. (1998). Genetic variability and diversity for protein and calcium contents in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] in relation to grain colour. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 52(4): 353-364.

  107. Venkatesan, J., Ramu, V., Sethuraman, T., Sivagnanam, C. and Doss, G. (2021). Molecular marker for characterization of traditional and hybrid derivatives of Eleusine coracana (L.) using ISSR marker. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. 19(1): 178.

  108. Wadikar, D.D., Premavalli, R.S., Satyanarayanswamy, Y.S. and Bawa, A.S. (2007). Lipid profile in finger millet. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 44(1): 79-81.

  109. Wankhede, D.B., Shehnaj, A. and Raghavendra Rao, M.R. (1979). A note on carbohydrate composition of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 28(3-4): 293-303.

  110. Wright, S. (1921). Correlation and cause or effect. Journal of Agricultural Research. 20(7): 557-585.

  111. Yang, L., An, D. and Kinney, L. (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press.

  112. Zhang, S., Zeng, X., Ren, M., Mao, X. and Qiao, S. (2017). Novel metabolic and physiological functions of branched chain amino acids: A review. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 8(1): 10.
Published In
Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika
Article Metrics
Metrics Icon
38
Views
0
Citations
Reviewed By
Share Article
Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Review Article

    Nutritional Importance of Finger Millet: A Review

    T
    T.S. Jagadale1,*
    D
    D D. Ahire1
    S
    S.B. Palve1
    S
    S.G. Auti2
    1Department of Botany, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahilyanagar-414 001, Maharashtra, Inida.
    2Department of Botany, HPT. Art’s and RYK Science College, Nashik- 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

    • Submitted06-03-2026|

    • Accepted17-07-2026|

    • First Online 07-08-2026|

    • doi 10.18805/BKAP926

    ABSTRACT

    Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] is an important crop of the Poaceae family and a staple food for millions of people in Asia and Africa. Originating in East Africa, it was later introduced to India, which is now one of its major producers. The crop is valued for its adaptability to marginal environments, drought tolerance, low-input cultivation and excellent storage ability. It is also recognized as a nutrient-rich cereal owing to its high calcium, dietary fiber, protein, essential amino acids, minerals and bioactive compounds. Information on the nutritional composition, genetic diversity and improvement of ragi has been generated through morphological, biochemical and molecular studies. DNA marker systems such as RAPD, SSR and ISSR, along with genomics-based approaches, have been employed to assess genetic variability, population structure and traits related to nutrition and stress tolerance. Studies have revealed considerable genetic diversity among ragi germplasm and significant variation in nutritional traits. The grain contains high levels of calcium, iron, dietary fiber, protein and bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. Molecular tools have facilitated the identification of superior genotypes and supported the development of nutritionally enhanced and stress-tolerant cultivars, emphasizing the crop’s importance for sustainable agriculture and food security.

    INTRODUCTION

    Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], named for its panicle-shaped inflorescence with finger-like spikes, is an ancient cereal widely cultivated in South Asia and Africa (De Wet, 2006; Quattrocchi, 2006). Each spike bears numerous spikelets containing small seeds (Dida et al., 2006). The grain is valued for its long storage life and resilience under drought conditions, making it a reliable staple food (FAO, 2012). Traditionally consumed as cooked grain, sprouts and fermented beverages, it also serves as feed for young or recovering animals in certain regions (Sampath, 1986).
           
    Nutritionally, the grains is distinguished by its high calcium (344 mg/gm) and iron (3.9 mg/gm) content (Gopalan et al., 2009), abundant polyphenols with antioxidant properties (Geetha et al., 1990) and slowly digesting starch that supports sustained energy release (Wadikar et al., 2007). It provides 5-8% protein, 65-75% carbohydrates, 15-20% dietary fibre and 2.5-3.5% minerals (Chethan and Malleshi, 2007). The grain also contains essential amino acids, phosphate and vitamins, making it a cost-effective source of nutrition, particularly in mountainous regions (Gopalan et al., 2004).
           
    With growing consumer awareness of health benefits, ragi flour has gained popularity for its role in managing anaemia, cholesterol, bone health and weight loss. Its resistant starches and nutrient density have encouraged the development of diverse value-added products such as noodles, biscuits, cookies and health drinks (Wadikar et al., 2007). Improved post-harvest processing and urban cultivation have further enhanced its accessibility, positioning ragi as a sustainable and affordable nutritional resource.
     
    History and origin
     
    Finger millet is a widely cultivated grain in Africa and India (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). It was domesticated about 5000 years ago in the highlands of Eastern Africa, making it the oldest known tropical African cereal (Joshi et al., 2021). Historical, linguistic and distributional evidence supports its African origin, from where it spread to India around 3000 years ago, southern Africa 800 years ago and later to South East Asia (Bhat et al., 2018). Archaeological and botanical studies confirm its domestication in East Africa, particularly Ethiopia, with E. coracana subsp. africana identified as its closest wild relative (De Wet and Huckabay, 1966; Hilu and De Wet, 1976). All cultivated forms belong to E. coracana subsp. coracana, distinguished by inflorescence morphology and geographic distribution (Hilu and De Wet, 1976).
           
    In India, ragi is a major crop, especially in Maharashtra, where it occupies nearly half of the millet growing area and it two thirds of small millet production (Gurav, 2019). About 120 thousand hectares are cultivated, with productivity of 908 kg/ha and annual production of 109 thousand tonnes (Prasad, 2002). It is grown across districts including Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nashik, Pune, Satara and Kolhapur, with the Konkan region having the largest acreage (Bhagat et al., 2019; Deshmukh, 2007). In irrigated areas, it is also harvested as a rabi crop, underscoring its importance in regional food security.
     
    Importance of millets in changing environment
     
    Millets were domesticated in Northern China as early as 10,000 years ago (Yang et al., 2005) and are typically cultivated on marginal soils with low fertility and limited rainfall. The seven major millets grown worldwide include finger millet, pearl millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, proso millet, kodo millet and little millet. As climate change reduces yields of staple cereals, millets have gained importance for their resilience. Being C4 plants, they exhibit high photosynthetic efficiency, short growth cycles and strong tolerance to heat and drought.
           
    India is the largest producer, contributing 38-40% of global millet output, followed by African nations such as Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad and China (Chandra et al., 2016). Major producing states include Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. However, between 2016-17, millet cultivation area declined by nearly 60% due to changing consumption patterns, land conversion to rice and wheat, low yields and reduced demand, leading to nutritional deficiencies and malnutrition. To address this, multidisciplinary approaches have been adopted by Indian and international organizations to improve productivity (Baltensperger, 2002; Collett, 2013). Notably, the Pearl Millet Genome Sequencing Consortium identified genes for heat and drought tolerance, offering potential benefits for millets and other crops.
     
    Genetic diversity of finger millet
     
    The cultivated ragi is an allotetraploid (2n = 4X = 36, AABB) with a genomic size of 1,593 Mb (Goron and Raizada, 2015). Evidence indicates Africa as the primary centre of origin, with greater diversity observed in African germplasm compared to Indian collections. However, centuries of cultivation, natural mutations and farmer selection in India have generated a wide range of local cultivars and landraces. Analyses of Indian germplasm reveal high variability in traits such as finger length, finger width, finger number, grain yield, ear weight, biomass and leaf number, supporting India as a secondary centre of diversity (Gopalan et al., 1999).
           
    This millet is a major food grains in Asia and Africa (Thapa and Tamang, 2004). Beyond its nutritional value, the crop is notable for environmental sustainability, particularly its long shelf life, which reduces post harvest losses (Kumar et al., 2016). Breeding progress for yield and related traits is genetically regulated, environmentally influenced and shaped by the extent of genetic diversity (Wright, 1921; Fisher, 1936). The availability of diverse germplasm and variability within populations are key drivers of improvement through conventional breeding methods (Krishna et al., 2008). In India, several varieties have recently been released through different breeding practices, as summarized in Table 1.

    Table 1: State wise varieties of finger millet till 2023 in India.


     
    Nutritional value
     
    Carbohydrates
     
    Carbohydrates are essential for energy metabolism, regulation of blood sugar and insulin, cholesterol balance and fermentation processes in the human body. Glucose derived from dietary carbohydrates serves as fuel, with excess stored in the liver and muscles. Finger millet is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre, making it nutritionally valuable, particularly in regions such as Karnataka where it remains a staple (Chandra et al., 2016).
           
    The total carbohydrate content of ragi ranges from 72 to 79.5% (Pore and Magar, 1979; Hulse et al., 1981; Joshi and Katoch, 1990; Bhatt et al., 2003). Starch is the major component, reported between 59.4 and 70.2% (Pore and Magar, 1979; Wankhede et al., 1979; Antony et al., 1996; Nirmala et al., 2000; Mittal, 2002). Starch granules are polygonal and rhombic in shape (Jideani et al., 1996), with 80-85% amylopectin and 15-20% amylose (Wankhede et al., 1979; Jideani et al., 1996). Non starch polysaccharides account for 20-30% of total carbohydrates (Bhatt et al., 2003). Reducing sugars are reported in the range of 1.2-1.8% (Pore and Magar, 1979), while Nirmala et al. (2000) found 1.5% reducing sugar and 0.03% non reducing sugar.
     
    Protein
     
    Proteins are vital biomolecules that catalyze reactions, regulate gene expression, form cellular structures and support immunity and muscle function. The grains contains approximately 7% protein, though reported values range from 5.6 to 12.7% depending on genotype and environment (Joshi and Katoch, 1990; Ravindran, 1991; Antony et al., 1996; Vadivoo et al., 1998; Mushtari, 1998; Bhatt et al., 2003). Singh and Srivastava (2006) observed protein levels between 4.88-15.58% across 16 varieties, while Kazi et al. (2022) reported 3.55-9.90% in 64 landraces. Brown seeded types generally show higher protein content than white types (Vadivoo et al., 1998). Prolamin is the major protein fraction, accounting for 24.6-36.2% of total protein (Lupien, 1990) and soluble proteins are present at 99.1 mg/100 gm (Antony and Chandra, 1998).
           
    The grain is notable for its essential amino acid profile, contributing 44.7% of total amino acids compared to 33.9% in many cereals (Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000). Key amino acids include tryptophan, threonine, valine, isoleucine and methionine (Thaguna et al., 2022). These play roles in muscle repair, bone development, metabolism, nitrogen balance and antioxidant production (Zhang et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2012; Fathima, 2023). Methionine, often deficient in other cereals, provides sulphur for glutathione synthesis, the body’s natural antioxidant. Lecithin and methionine also aid in cholesterol regulation by reducing liver fat (Devi et al., 2014).
           
    At the molecular level, transcription factors such as Opaque2 and PBF regulate seed storage proteins. Opaque2 modifiers influence lysine and tryptophan metabolism, enhancing nutritional quality (Babu et al., 2015). Orthologs of these genes, along with calcium transporters and calmodulin, have been identified in ragi (Reddy et al., 2011; Nirgude et al., 2014). Compared to other millets, finger millet provides higher levels of valine, threonine and lysine, while tryptophan contributes to appetite regulation and weight management (Asritha, 2021). Its combination of protein, amino acids and fibre underscores its role as a functional food supporting metabolic health.
     
    Crude fibre and fatty acids content
     
    Dietary fibre, though indigestible, plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar, satiety and digestive health. Crude fibre in ragi has been reported between 1.2-1.4% (Seetharam, 2001), 1.3-1.8% (Bhatt et al., 2003; Singh et al., 2003; Malleshi and Desikachar, 1986; Lupien, 1990), 2.1% (Antony et al., 1996), 3.6% (Kamath and Belavady, 1980) and 3.7% (Joshi and Katoch, 1990). Total dietary fibre (TDF) is reported at 12%, with insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) at 11% and soluble dietary fibre (SDF) at 2% (Ramulu and Rao, 1997). The garin contains about 18.6% dietary fibre, comprising 5.1% non cellulosic polysaccharides, 4.7% cellulose and 7.9% lignin (Kamath and Belavady, 1980). Compared to other cereals, ragi has ~22% more fibre, with wheat, rice, maize and sorghum containing 12.6%, 4.5%, 13.4% and 12.8% respectively (Klopfenstein, 2000). High fibre intake is associated with delayed nutrient absorption, reduced blood lipids, protection against colon cancer and improved intestinal mobility (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003). Its gluten free nature also makes it suitable for individuals with gluten sensitivity (Hulse et al., 1981; Reed, 1976; Subbarao, 2002).
           
    Lipids, though present in low amounts, contribute to energy metabolism and cellular function. Total lipid content in ragi is reported at 5.2% (free lipids 2.2%; bound lipids 2.4%; structural lipids 0.6%) (Sridhar and Lakshminarayana, 1994). Fatty acid composition shows 25.6% saturated and 74.4% unsaturated fatty acids, with oleic acid, palmitic acid and linoleic acid as major components and linolenic acid as minor (Sridhar and Lakshminarayana, 1994). Black finger millet contains 8.71 mg/gm dry weight fatty acids and 8.47 mg/gm dry weight protein (Gupta, 2014). Non polar lipids account for 80%, glycolipids 6% and phospholipids 14% (Antony et al., 1996). The high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids enhances its nutritional quality.
     
    Minerals
     
    Minerals are essential dietary components, supporting bone formation, muscle and nerve function, water balance and the activity of hormones and enzymes. This millet exhibits higher ash content than many cereals, ranging from 1.7-4.13% (Rao et al., 1973; Singh and Srivastava, 2006), with most studies reporting 2.1-2.7% (Samantaray and Samantaray, 1997; Bhatt et al., 2003; Mushtari, 1998; Malleshi and Desikachar, 1986; Lupien, 1990). Sixteen varieties showed ash values between 1.47-2.58% with a mean of 2.11% (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Environmental and genetic factors strongly influence mineral content (Kazi et al., 2017). Ragi flour was successfully used to prepare acceptable nutritious cookies by replacing refined flour up to 50%, while also improving mineral, fiber, calcium, iron, phosphorus, copper and zinc content (Sinha and Sharma, 2017).
           
    Calcium is the most abundant mineral in ragi. Across 36 genotypes, calcium ranged from 162-487 mg/gm with a mean of 320.8 mg/gm (Vadivoo et al., 1998). White varieties averaged 329 mg/gm compared to 296 mg/gm in brown types (Seetharam, 2001). Bhatt et al., (2003) reported 344 mg/gm, while some germplasm lines reached 450 mg/gm (Panwar et al., 2010). This millet contains 5–30 times more calcium than other cereals (National Research Council, 1996), making it a natural source for preventing osteoporosis and supporting bone health (Desai et al., 2010). Transcriptome studies have identified calcium transporters, calmodulin and Ca dependent protein kinases as regulators of grain calcium accumulation (Kumar et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2014; Sood et al., 2016).
           
    Iron content varies widely, from 3.3-14.8 mg/gm (Babu et al., 1987). Sixteen varieties showed 3.61-5.42 mg/gm with a mean of 4.40 mg/gm (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Ragi is recognized as an excellent natural source of iron, effective in improving anaemia (Kaur et al., 2022). Zinc ranged from 0.92-2.55 mg/gm (mean 1.34 mg/gm), while phosphorus ranged from 130-295 mg/gm (mean 180.43 mg/gm) (Singh and Srivastava, 2006). Ragi also contains potassium, magnesium, copper, sodium and phosphorus in significant amounts (Obilana et al., 2002). Magnesium content ranged from 142 to 193 mg/100 g, with KFMG 2239 lowest, KFMG 2262 highest and Phule Nachani and Phule Kasari at 167 and 156 mg/100 g, respectively (Ghogare et al., 2025).
           
    The grain flour, rich in calcium, iron and amino acids, is widely used in porridge, dosas and roti (Shobana et al., 2013). Its nutritional value makes it suitable for infant weaning foods and contributes to livestock feed (Kumar et al., 2012). With higher potassium (344 mg/gm) and calcium (408 mg/gm) compared to rice, ragi supports teeth and bone health and offers protection against malnutrition, diabetes and hypertension (Jayawardana et al., 2022; Shobana et al., 2013).
     
    Vitamins
     
    Vitamins are essential for biological processes such as immunity, wound repair, bone development and hormone regulation. This millet is a good source of B complex vitamins, including thiamin, riboflavin and niacin, as well as tocopherols (vitamin E) (Obilana and Manyasa, 2002). Both water soluble and fat soluble vitamins have been reported, including vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin E (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1995).
           
    Carotene content has been reported at 45 μg/100 gm (Gopalan et al., 1999), though other studies found lower β carotene levels of 0-1 μg/100 gm (Bhaskaracharya, 2001). Vitamin A values vary: Edu NAP (1996) reported six retinol equivalents, while Ramashia et al. (2019) found 6.0 mg/100 gm. Vitamin C content has been reported between 0.0-1.0 mg/100 gm (Shobana et al., 2013)                                        

    This millet also contains nitriloside (vitamin B17), a compound noted for selective toxicity against cancer cells, suggesting potential therapeutic applications without adverse side effects. Its vitamin profile, combined with high mineral and fibre content, enhances its role as a functional food for health promotion.                     
                                                                                            
    The nutritional composition of grains is presented in Table 2. It contains 336 kcal energy, 7.7 gm protein, 1.5 gm fat, 72.6 gm carbohydrates, 11.5 gm fibre, 350 mg calcium, 283 mg phosphorus, 3.9 mg iron, 2.3 mg zinc, 11 mg sodium and 408 mg potassium per 100 gm (Porwal et al., 2023).                    

    Table 2: Nutritional composition of finger millet.

                                                                                                                                            

    Molecular characterization
     
    Initial molecular characterization of finger millet relied on RAPD markers, which provided a rapid and economical means of assessing genetic variability among landraces and cultivated types. These studies revealed substantial polymorphism and established foundational diversity patterns (Jadav et al., 2023). With methodological advances, SSR markers became widely adopted due to their reproducibility and codominant inheritance, enabling finer discrimination among accessions. Extensive SSR based analyses highlighted pronounced differences between Indian and exotic germplasm, generating valuable insights for breeding programs (Babu et al., 2017).
           
    ISSR markers were subsequently applied to traditional cultivars and hybrid lines, confirming the broad genetic base and adaptability of ragi across diverse agro climatic regions (Venkatesan et al., 2021). Genome wide studies using high throughput genotyping and conserved germplasm collections at ICRISAT further clarified population structure, genetic variation and evolutionary dynamics, reinforcing the crop’s resilience and nutritional importance (Backiyalakshmi et al., 2021). More recently, integration of biochemical profiling with molecular marker analyses has linked nutritional traits, such as protein content, amino acid composition and antioxidant activity to genetic diversity, aiding the identification of superior landraces for functional food development (Solanki and Patel, 2023). Omics driven approaches, including genomics, transcriptomics and molecular breeding, now provide a strong foundation for trait improvement and sustainable nutritional security (Kayastha et al., 2024).
           
    Functional SSRs have also been developed to explore variation in opaque2 (o2) modifiers influencing tryptophan concentration. Babu et al., (2014) created 67 SSRs from EST sequences of maize and sorghum o2 modifiers, transcription factors and candidate genes in lysine and tryptophan pathways. Using these markers, Sood et al., (2016) classified 190 global genotypes into three clusters: Cluster A with medium tryptophan (0.70-0.85%), Cluster B with high levels (>0.85%) and Cluster C with mostly <0.7%. A few genotypes, including IE5106, IE6350, GE4449, VHC3903, VHC3870 and GE4811, exhibited ~0.9% tryptophan, highlighting their potential as nutritionally superior breeding material (Sood et al., 2016).
     
    Antioxidant activity
     
    Dietary antioxidants protect cells from oxidative damage by scavenging free radicals, thereby reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders and cancer. Major plant-derived antioxidants include carotenoids, polyphenols and vitamins C and E (Manach et al., 2004; Baiano et al., 2016). Finger millet is rich in bioactive compounds such as phenols, tannins, phytates, flavonoids and enzyme inhibitors, which are now recognized for their nutraceutical and antioxidant properties (Thompson, 1993). Phenolic compounds, particularly tannins, are abundant in grains of ragi (Ramachandra et al., 1977; Serna-Saldivar et al., 1995; McDonough et al., 2000) and exhibit strong free radical scavenging activity (Subbarao et al., 2002; Sripriya et al., 1996), contributing to protection against cancer, cardiovascular diseases and ageing-related disorders (Bravo, 1998; Rice-Evans et al., 1997; Scalbert et al., 2005).
           
    Tannin content varies widely among grain types, with higher levels in red-brown grains than white grains (Asquith and Butler, 1986). This millet also contains phytates (0.48%), trypsin inhibitors (0.61%), dietary fibre and carotenoids, further enhancing its antioxidant potential (Mathanghi, 2012). Animal studies have confirmed its ability to reduce oxidative stress (Rajasekaran et al., 2004), while malted ragi beverages also possess high antioxidant activity (Chandrasekara et al., 2010). These properties highlight the importance of conserving finger millet landraces as valuable nutritional resources (Kazi et al., 2022).
     
    Antidiabetic activity
     
    Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder caused by impaired insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. It is a major global health concern and is associated with reduced life expectancy, renal failure, blindness and substantial socioeconomic burdens (Patel et al., 2012; Keerthana et al., 2013). Ragi exhibits significant anti-diabetic potential due to its high dietary fibre, flavonoids and polyphenols, which help reduce hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress (Devi et al., 2014). It also contains trypsin inhibitory factors and phytic acid (0.48% each), which lower the glycaemic index by reducing intestinal absorption of proteins and carbohydrates (Devi et al., 2014). Furthermore, this millet modulates gut microbiota by promoting beneficial microorganisms and suppressing harmful microbes, thereby enhancing its anti-diabetic effects (Sarma et al., 2018).

    CONCLUSION

    Finger millet is a nutrient-rich and climate-resilient food grains with immense potential to improve global food and nutritional security. It is an excellent source of calcium, iron, dietary fibre, essential amino acids and bioactive compounds, making it a valuable functional food. Its health-promoting properties help reduce the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and oxidative stress. The crop is well adapted to marginal lands, requires low agricultural inputs and performs well under drought conditions, making it suitable for climate-smart agriculture. Its rich genetic diversity, supported by advances in molecular breeding and genomics, offers significant opportunities for developing high-yielding and nutrient-dense cultivars. Conservation of finger millet landraces and promotion of value-added products will enhance its utilization and commercial importance. Therefore, continued research, genetic improvement and wider cultivation of this millet are essential for achieving sustainable agriculture, improving rural livelihoods and ensuring future food and nutritional security.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by the Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj Research, Training and Human Development Institute (SARTHI), Pune, Maharashtra, through financial assistance. The authors sincerely acknowledge SARTHI for its valuable support. The authors also express their sincere gratitude to the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahilyanagar and the Department of Botany for their continuous guidance, encouragement and institutional support during the preparation of this review article.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Not applicable. This article is a review based entirely on published literature and does not involve human participants, animal experiments, or clinical studies.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. The funding agency had no role in the conceptualization, literature collection, interpretation of published findings, preparation of the manuscript, or the decision to publish this review article.

    REFERENCES


    1. Antony, U. and Chandra, T.S. (1998). Antinutrient reduction and enhancement in protein, starch and mineral availability in fermented flour of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 46(7): 2578- 2582.

    2. Antony, U., Sripriya, G. and Chandra, T.S. (1996). Effect of fermentation on the primary nutrients in finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 44(9): 2616- 2618.

    3. Asquith, T.N. and Butler, L.G. (1986). Interactions of condensed tannins with selected proteins. Phytochemistry. 25(7): 1591- 1593.

    4. Asritha, V. (2021). A review on role of millets in weight loss. Indian Journal of Nutrition. 8(3): 1-3.

    5. Babu, B.K., Agrawal, P.K., Pandey, D. and Kumar, A. (2014). Comparative genomics and association mapping approaches for opaque2 modifier genes in finger millet accessions using genic, genomic and candidate gene-based simple sequence repeat markers. Molecular Breeding. 34(3): 1261-1279.

    6. Babu, B.K., Agrawal, P.K., Saha, S. and Gupta, H.S. (2015). Mapping QTLs for opaque2 modifiers influencing the tryptophan content in quality protein maize using genomic and candidate gene-based SSRs of lysine and tryptophan metabolic pathway. Plant Cell Reports. 34(1): 37-45.

    7. Babu, B.K., Sood, S., Agrawal, P.K., Chandrashekara, C., Kumar, A. and Kumar, A. (2017). Molecular and phenotypic characterization of 149 finger millet accessions using microsatellite and agro-morphological markers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences. 87(4): 1217-1228.

    8. Babu, B.V., Ramana, T. and Radhakrishnan, T.M. (1987). Chemical composition and protein content in hybrid varieties of finger millet. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 57(7): 520-522.

    9. Backiyalakshmi, C., Vetriventhan, M., Deshpande, S., Babu, C., Allan, V., Naresh, D. and Azevedo, V. C. (2021). Genome- wide assessment of population structure and genetic diversity of the global finger millet germplasm panel conserved at the ICRISAT Genebank. Frontiers in Plant Science. 12: 692463.

    10. Baiano, A. and Del Nobile, M.A. (2016). Antioxidant compounds from vegetable matrices: Biosynthesis, occurrence and extraction systems. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 56(12): 2053-2068.

    11. Baltensperger, D.D. (2002). Progress with proso, pearl and other millets. Trends in New Crops and New Uses. 100: 100- 103.

    12. Bhagat, S.B., Dahiphale, A.V., Mhaskar, N.V., Jondhale, D.G. and Puri, M.C. (2019). Finger millet (Eleusine coracana G.) based intercropping for food security in Konkan Region – A review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 8(1): 3065-3077.

    13. Bhaskaracharya, K. (2001). Food based strategy for combating vitamin A deficiency. Nutrition News. 21(2): 1-4.

    14. Bhat, B.V., Rao, B.D. and Tonapi, V.A. (2018). The Story of Millets. ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research and Karnataka State Department of Agriculture.

    15. Bhatt, A., Singh, V., Shrotria, P.K. and Baskheti, D.C. (2003). Coarse grains of Uttaranchal: Ensuring sustainable food and nutritional security. Indian Farmer’s Digest. 7(1): 34-38.

    16. Bravo, L. (1998). Polyphenols: Chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism and nutritional significance. Nutrition Reviews. 56(11): 317-333.

    17. Chandra, D., Chandra, S. and Sharma, A.K. (2016). Review of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn]: A powerhouse of health-benefiting nutrients. Food Science and Human Wellness. 5(3): 149-155.

    18. Chandrasekara, A. and Shahidi, F. (2010). Content of insoluble bound phenolics in millets and their contribution to antioxidant capacity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 58(11): 6706-6714.

    19. Chethan, S. and Malleshi, N.G. (2007). Finger millet polyphenols: Optimization of extraction and the effect of pH on their stability. Food Chemistry. 105(2): 862-870.

    20. Collett, I.J. (2013). Forage Sorghum and Millet. (3rd ed.). NSW Department of Primary Industries.

    21. De Wet, J.M.J. (2006). Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Record from Protabase. PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa).

    22. De Wet, J.M.J. and Huckabay, J.P. (1966). The origin of Eleusine coracana. American Journal of Botany. 53(6): 575-582.

    23. Desai, A.D., Kulkarni, S.S., Sahoo, A.K., Ranveer, R.C. and Dandge, P.B. (2010). Effect of supplementation of malted ragi flour on the nutritional and sensorial quality characteristics of cake. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2(1): 67-71.

    24. Deshmukh, G.M. (2007). Studies on effect of FYM, lime, NP fertilizer and boron on yield, nutrient uptake and quality of nagli (Eleusine coracana G.). M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Dr. BSKKV, Dapoli.

    25. Devi, P.B., Vijayabharathi, R., Sathyabama, S., Malleshi, N.G. and Priyadarisini, V. B. (2014). Health benefits of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) polyphenols and dietary fiber: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(6): 1021-1040.

    26. Dida, M.M. and Devos, K.M. (2006). Finger millet. In: Cereals and Millets. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. (pp. 333-343).

    27. Edu NAP. (1996). Finger millet. In: Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. (pp. 39-58).

    28. Fathima Sirin (2023). A review on finger millet: its nutritional value, bioactive compounds, processing and value-addition. Pharma Innov J. 12: 2193-2199.

    29. Fisher, R.A. (1936). The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. Annals of Eugenics. 7(2): 179-188.

    30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2012). Grassland Index: A Searchable Catalogue of Grass and Forage Legumes.

    31. Geetha, C., and Parvathi, P. (1990). Hypoglycemic effect of millet incorporated breakfast items on selected non-insulin dependent diabetic patients. Indian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics. 27: 316-320.

    32. Ghogare, S., Dalvi, U., Ban, Y., Lokhande, P. and Kale, A. (2025). Assessment of finger millet germplasm in relation to nutritional perspective. Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika. 40(1): 86-92. doi: 10.18805/BKAP805.

    33. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B.V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (1999). Nutritive Value of Indian Foods (B.S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition.

    34. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (2004). Nutritive value of Indian foods (B. S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition.

    35. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V., and Balasubramanian, S. C. (2009). Nutritive value of Indian foods (B. S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pant, Revs.). National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR.

    36. Goron, T.L. and Raizada, M.N. (2015). Genetic diversity and genomic resources available for the small millet crops. Plant Science. 242: 132-145.

    37. Gupta, R. (2014). Ragi: A Boon to Nutritional Security. Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.

    38. Gurav, K.V. (2019). A study on recommended finger millet production technology by the farmers from Kolhapur District of Maharashtra, India. International Journal of Chemical Studies. 7(5): 2717-2720.

    39. Hilu, K.W. and De Wet, J.M.J. (1976). Domestication of Eleusine coracana. Economic Botany. 30(3): 199-208.

    40. Hulse, J.H., Laing, E.M. and Pearson, O.E. (1981). Sorghum and millets: Their composition and nutritive value (p. 997).

    41. Jadav, S.K., Narwade, A.V., Mahatma, L., Patil, H., Vadodariya, G. and Patel, P.B. (2023). Molecular characterization of finger millet genotypes through RAPD markers. The Pharma Innovation Journal. 12(11): 1736-1740.

    42. Jayawardana, S.A.S., Samarasekera, J.K.R.R., Hettiarachchi, G.H.C.M. and Gooneratne, M.J. (2022). Antidiabetic properties of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] varieties cultivated in Sri Lanka. Journal of Herbal Medicine. 32: 100534.

    43. Jideani, I., Takeda, Y. and Hizukuri, S. (1996). Structures and physiochemical properties of starches from acha (Digitaria exilis), Iburu (D. iburua) and tamba (Eleusine coracana). Cereal Chemistry. 73(6): 677-685.

    44. Joshi, H.C. and Katoch, K.K. (1990). Nutritive value of millets: A comparison with cereals and pseudocereals. Himalayan Research and Development. 9: 26-28.

    45. Joshi, R.P., Jain, A.K., Malhotra, N., and Kumari, M. (2021). Origin, Domestication and Spread. In: Millets and Pseudocereals. Woodhead Publishing. (pp. 33-38).

    46. Kamath, M.V. and Belavady, B. (1980). Unavailable carbohydrates of commonly consumed Indian foods. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 31(2): 194-202.

    47. Kaur, N., Agarwal, A., and Sabharwal, M. (2022). Food fortification strategies to deliver nutrients for the management of iron deficiency anaemia. Current Research in Food Science. 5: 2094-2107.

    48. Kayastha, S., Sahoo, J.P., Mahapatra, M. and Panda, N. (2024). Understanding the molecular breeding and omics approaches for finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) improvement towards a global sustainable nutritional security. Crop Design. 3(1): 100049.

    49. Kazi, T.S., Laware, S.L. and Auti, S.G. (2022). Analysis of nutritional diversity and antioxidant activity of finger millet landraces. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 56(1): 1-6. doi: 10.18805/IJARe.A-5741.

    50. Kazi, T. and Auti, S.G. (2017). Screening of higher mineral containing finger millet landraces from Maharashtra. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition. 2(3): 21-25.

    51. Keerthana, G., Kalaivani, M.K. and Sumathy, A. (2013). In-vitro alpha amylase inhibitory and antioxidant activities of ethanolic leaf extract of Croton bonplandianum. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 6(4): 32-36.

    52. Klopfenstein, C.F. (2000). Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. (pp. 705-723).

    53. Krishna, L., Raju, C.D. and Raju, C.S. (2008). Genetic variability and correlation in yield and grain quality characters of rice germplasm. The Andhra Agricultural Journal. 55(3): 276-279.

    54. Kumar, A., Kanwal, P., Gupta, A.K., Singh, B.R. and Gaur, V.S. (2014). A full-length Dof1 transcription factor of finger millet and its response to a circadian cycle. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 32(2): 419-427.

    55. Kumar, A., Metwal, M., Kaur, S., Gupta, A.K., Puranik, S., Singh, S. and Yadav, R. (2016). Nutraceutical value of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] and their improvement using omics approaches. Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 934.

    56. Kumar, A., Sharma, N., Panwar, P. and Gupta, A.K. (2012). Use of SSR, RAPD markers and protein profiles based analysis to differentiate Eleusine coracana genotypes differing in their protein content. Molecular Biology Reports. 39(4): 4949-4960.

    57. Lupien, J.R. (1990). Sorghum and Millets in Human Nutrition. FAO, ICRISAT.

    58. Malleshi, N.G. and Desikachar, H.S.R. (1986). Influence of malting conditions on quality of finger millet malt. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 92(1): 81-83.

    59. Manach, C., Scalbert, A., Morand, C., Rémésy, C. and Jiménez, L. (2004). Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79(5): 727- 747.

    60. Mathanghi, S.K. and Sudha, K. (2012). Functional and phytochemical properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) for health. International Journal of Pharmaceutical, Chemical and Biological Sciences. 2(4): 431-438.

    61. Mbithi-Mwikya, S., Van Camp, J., Yiru, Y. and Huyghebaert, A. (2000). Nutrient and antinutrient changes in finger millet (Eleusine coracana) during sprouting. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 33(1): 9-14.

    62. McDonough, C.M., Rooney, L.W., and Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (2000). The millets. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. (pp. 177-201).

    63. Mittal, M. (2002). Development of finger millet and barnyard millet based convenience mixes for food products and their evaluation for nutritional quality, storage stability and acceptability [Doctoral dissertation, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology].

    64. Mushtari, B.J. (1998). Nutritive value of ragi (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) before and after malting. Beverage Food World. 25(5): 38-42.

    65. National Research Council, Policy, Global Affairs, Office of International Affairs, Board on Science and Technology for International Development. (1996). Lost crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains (Vol. 1). National Academies Press.

    66. Nirgude, M., Babu, B.K., Shambhavi, Y., Singh, U.M., Upadhyaya, H.D. and Kumar, A. (2014). Development and molecular characterization of genic molecular markers for grain protein and calcium content in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Molecular Biology Reports. 41(3): 1189- 1200.

    67. Nirmala, M., Rao, M.S. and Muralikrishna, G. (2000). Carbohydrates and their degrading enzymes from native and malted finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana, Indaf-15). Food Chemistry. 69(2): 175-180.

    68. Obilana, A.B., and Manyasa, E. (2002). Millets. In: Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals: Grain Properties and Utilization Potential [P.S. Belton and J.R.N. Taylor (Eds.)], Springer. (pp. 177-217).

    69. Panwar, P., Nath, M., Yadav, V.K. and Kumar, A. (2010). Comparative evaluation of genetic diversity using RAPD, SSR and cytochrome P450 gene based markers with respect to calcium content in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Journal of Genetics. 89(2): 121-133.

    70. Patel, D.K., Prasad, S.K., Kumar, R., and Hemalatha, S. (2012). An overview on antidiabetic medicinal plants having insulin mimetic property. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2(4): 320-330.

    71. Pore, M.S. and Magar, N.G. (1979). Nutrient composition of hybrid varieties of finger millet. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 49(7): 526-531.

    72. Porwal, A., Bhagwat, G., Sawarkar, J. and Kamble, P. (2023). An overview of millets-the nutri-cereals: Its nutritional profile, potential health benefits and sustainable cultivation approach. International Journal of Science and Research Archive. 10(1): 841-859.

    73. Prasad, R. (Ed.). (2002). Textbook of Field Crops Production: Foodgrain crops (Vol. 1). Directorate of Information and Publication of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

    74. Prasad, Rajendra, ed. (2002). Textbook of Field Crops Production: Foodgrain Crops-V. 1. Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture.

    75. Quattrocchi, U. (2006). CRC world dictionary of grasses: Common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology – 3 volume set. CRC Press.

    76. Rajasekaran, N., Nithya, M., Rose, C. and Chandra, T.S. (2004). The effect of finger millet feeding on the early responses during the process of wound healing in diabetic rats. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Basis of Disease. 1689(3): 190-201.

    77. Ramachandra, G., Virupaksha, T.K., and Shadaksharaswamy, M. (1977). Relation between tannin levels and in vitro protein digestibility in finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 25(5): 1101-1104.

    78. Ramashia, S.E., Anyasi, T.A., Gwata, E.T., Meddows-Taylor, S. and Jideani, A.I.O. (2019). Processing, nutritional composition and health benefits of finger millet in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Science and Technology. 39: 253-266.

    79. Ramulu, P. and Udayasekhara Rao, P. (1997). Effect of processing on dietary fiber content of cereals and pulses. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 50(3): 249-257.

    80. Rao, K.B., Mithyantha, M.S., Devi, L.S. and Perur, N.G. (1973). Nutrient content of some new ragi varieties. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 7(4): 562-565.

    81. Ravindran, G. (1991). Studies on millets: Proximate composition, mineral composition, phytate and oxalate contents. Food Chemistry. 39(1): 99-107.

    82. Reddy, I.N.B.L., Reddy, D.S., Narasu, M.L., and Sivaramakrishnan, S. (2011). Characterization of disease resistance gene homologues isolated from finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.]. Molecular Breeding. 27(3): 315-328.

    83. Reed, C.F. (1976). Information summaries on 1000 economic plants. Typescripts submitted to the USDA. USA: USDA.

    84. Rice-Evans, C., Miller, N. and Paganga, G. (1997). Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds. Trends in Plant Science. 2(4): 152-159.

    85. Samantaray, G.T. and Samantaray, B. K. (1997). X-ray diffraction study of ragi (Eleusine coracana) starch. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore). 34(4): 343-344.

    86. Sampath, S.R. (1986). Scope for Using Small Millets as Forage in India. In: A. Seetharam.

    87. Sarma, S.M., Singh, D.P., Singh, P., Khare, P., Mangal, P. and Singh, S. (2018). Finger millet arabinoxylan protects mice from high-fat diet induced lipid derangements, inflammation, endotoxemia and gut bacterial dysbiosis. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 106: 994-1003.

    88. Scalbert, A., Johnson, I.T., and Saltmarsh, M. (2005). Polyphenols: Antioxidants and beyond. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 81(1 Suppl): 215S-217S.

    89. Seetharam, A. (2001). Small Millets in Indian Agriculture. In: Proceedings of the National Workshop on Small Millets. Madurai, India: ICAR-Small Millets Research Station. (pp. 1-10).

    90. Serna-Saldivar, S.O., Rooney, L.W., and Faubion, J.M. (1995). The Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Value of Sorghum and Millet. In: Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Y. Pomeranz (Ed.)], St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists. 10: 97-140.

    91. Shobana, S. and Krishnaswamy, K. (2013). Nutrient composition and protein quality of the little millet, Panicum sumatrense. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 93(1): 54-61.

    92. Singh, P. and Raghuvanshi, R. (2012). Finger millet for food and nutritional security. African Journal of Food Science. 6(6): 77-84.

    93. Singh, P. and Srivastava, S. (2006). Nutritional composition of sixteen new varieties of finger millet. J. Community Mobilization Sustainable Development. 1(2): 81-84.

    94. Singh, P., Raghuvanshi, R.S., and Singh, R. (2003). Finger millet: A potential source of food security and nutrition. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 40(5): 541-546.

    95. Singh, U.M., Chandra, M., Shankhdhar, S.C. and Kumar, A. (2014). Transcriptome wide identification and validation of calcium sensor gene family in the developing spikes of finger millet genotypes for elucidating its role in grain calcium accumulation. PLoS ONE. 9(8): e103963.

    96. Sinha, R. and Sharma, B. (2017). Use of finger millet in cookies and their sensory and nutritional evaluation. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 36(3): 264-266. doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.v36i03.8962.

    97. Solanki, U.B. and Patel, N.J. (2023). Biochemical molecular characterization of finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn] genotypes. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research. 5(4): IJFMR23045226.

    98. Sood, S., Kumar, A., Babu, B. K., Gaur, V. S., Pandey, D., Kant, L. and Pattnayak, A. (2016). Gene discovery and advances in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] genomics- An important nutri-cereal of future. Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 1634.

    99. Sridhar, R. and Lakshminarayana, G. (1994). Contents of total lipids and lipid classes and composition of fatty acids in small millets: Foxtail (Setaria italica), proso (Panicum miliaceum) and finger (Eleusine coracana). Cereal Chemistry. 71(4): 355-359.

    100. Sripriya, G., Chandrasekharan, K. and Murty, V.S. (1996). ESR spectroscopic studies on free radical quenching action of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Food Chemistry. 57(4): 537-540.

    101. Subbarao, M.V.S.S.T. and Muralikrishna, G. (2002). Nonstarch polysaccharides and bound phenolic acids from native and malted finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine coracana Indaf- 15). Food Chemistry. 79(2): 187-192.

    102. Thaguna, B., Rimal, A., Kaur, J., Dhakal, Y., Paudel, B., and Pokhara, B. (2022). Finger millet: A powerhouse of nutrients- Its amino acid, micronutrient profile, bioactive compounds, health benefits and value-added products. International Journal of Health Sciences. 6(S3): 2321-9459.

    103. Thapa, S., and Tamang, J.P. (2004). Product characterisation of kodo ko jaanr: Fermented finger millet beverage of the Himalayas. Food Microbiology. 21(5): 617-622.

    104. Tharanathan, R.N. and Mahadevamma, S. (2003). Grain legumes – A boon to human nutrition. Trends in Food Science and Technolog. 14(12): 507-518.

    105. Thompson, L.U. (1993). Potential health benefits and problems associated with antinutrients in foods. Food Research International. 26(2): 131-149.

    106. Vadivoo, A.S., Joseph, R. and Ganesan, N.M. (1998). Genetic variability and diversity for protein and calcium contents in finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] in relation to grain colour. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 52(4): 353-364.

    107. Venkatesan, J., Ramu, V., Sethuraman, T., Sivagnanam, C. and Doss, G. (2021). Molecular marker for characterization of traditional and hybrid derivatives of Eleusine coracana (L.) using ISSR marker. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. 19(1): 178.

    108. Wadikar, D.D., Premavalli, R.S., Satyanarayanswamy, Y.S. and Bawa, A.S. (2007). Lipid profile in finger millet. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 44(1): 79-81.

    109. Wankhede, D.B., Shehnaj, A. and Raghavendra Rao, M.R. (1979). A note on carbohydrate composition of finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 28(3-4): 293-303.

    110. Wright, S. (1921). Correlation and cause or effect. Journal of Agricultural Research. 20(7): 557-585.

    111. Yang, L., An, D. and Kinney, L. (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press.

    112. Zhang, S., Zeng, X., Ren, M., Mao, X. and Qiao, S. (2017). Novel metabolic and physiological functions of branched chain amino acids: A review. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 8(1): 10.
    In this Article
      Contact us
      Follow us
      Published In
      Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika

      Editorial Board

      View all (0)