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Full Research Article

Health Status of Urban Stray Cats in Batna, Algeria: An Epidemiological and Clinical Survey

N
N. Hafid1,*
1Laboratory of Environmental, Health and Animal Production, Institute of Veterinary Sciences and Agronomic Sciences, Batna-1 University, 05000, Algeria.

ABSTRACT

Background: Our work aims to assess the health status of a stray cat population through an epidemiological and clinical study of urban stray cats in the Batna province (north-eastern Algeria) by determining the prevalence of various diseases and risk factors.

Methods: Overall, 270 stray cats were captured and examined. Faecal samples were collected and examined using various coprological techniques. For retroviruses, serological tests were performed on blood samples using FeLV and FIV rapid diagnostic kits. The prevalence of various conditions (gastrointestinal parasitic infections, retroviruses, systemic diseases, eye disorders, etc.) was studied according to the age, sex and health status of the cats examined.

Result: Analysis of the results shows a very high prevalence of clinically affected cats at 85% (229/270), most often in young cats (92.63%) and males (90.26%). In addition, 69.92% of cats were infested with at least one gastrointestinal parasite and the most prevalent parasites were Toxocara spp. (55.61%), Dipylidium caninum (22.45%), Toxoplasma gondii (7.48%) and Taenia spp. (6.95%). Cystoisospora spp., Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected at lower prevalence. Regarding retroviruses, a seroprevalence of 13.70% (37/270) for FIV and 8.14% (22/270) for FeLV was detected. Clinically, five major groups of disorders were observed: systemic diseases (40.61%), eye disorders (27.51%), trauma and fractures (20.08%), skin disorders (6.55%) and otitis externa (3.05%). These findings highlight the high burden of infectious and clinical disorders in stray cats in Batna and emphasise the need for improved veterinary management and public health surveillance.

INTRODUCTION

Stray cats, also known as street or feral cats, are felines that have no domestic home or anyone to care for them daily, such as cats abandoned by their owners or those born feral. They are found in streets and alleys, in residential areas, around restaurants and even in rubbish dumps (Huang et al., 2018).
       
The proliferation and formation of feral cat colonies are mainly determined by the availability of water and food resources. Their survival is strongly influenced by their living conditions (hygiene, physical aggression, etc.); they are generally vulnerable and particularly exposed to various diseases and infections.
       
The health status of the stray cat population has been assessed in several publications in recent years and the prevalence of certain infectious and/or parasitic diseases has been studied and determined (Duarte et al., 2010; Grieco et al., 2021; Nofira et al., 2022).
       
However, in Algeria, the health situation of this population is marginalised and rarely documented. Published studies mainly address the risks of zoonotic disease transmission by these colonies, such as rabies and leptospirosis and methods for their eradication (Salimi et al., 2022; Zaidi et al., 2022).
       
Our work aims to assess the health status of the stray cat population through an epidemiological and clinical study of urban stray cats in the wilaya of Batna by conducting clinical and complementary examinations (coproscopy, serological screening) to analyse the situation statistically. In doing so, this study will contribute to improving the management and welfare of this population. It will also contribute to defining and improving public health through the management of zoonotic risks and environmental contamination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethical approval
 
The proposal and the risk assessment of the study were submitted and approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the University of Batna 1, department of Veterinary sciences.
 
Area, animals and study design
 
This study was conducted in urban areas in the city of Batna and its surrounding regions in the Batna province in north-eastern Algeria from January 2022 to May 2025.
       
Overall, 270 stray cats were captured using specific equipment, including traps, transport cages and anti-scratch gloves. The cats were then immediately transported to the Domestic Carnivore Clinic at the University of Batna 1, where they were identified and classified according to sex (female and male intact), age group (young: <1 year; adult: 1-7 years; senior: >7 years) and health status. All animals underwent a physical clinical examination, after which observed conditions were categorised into different disorders (skin, eye and ear disorders, trauma and fractures).
       
For the parasitological examination, faecal samples from the first defecation were collected and examined macroscopically and microscopically using standard coprological techniques, including direct examination with Lugol’s iodine, simple sedimentation, formalin- ether sedimentation and flotation (Dar et al., 2022). In addition, blood samples were analysed using FeLV and FIV rapid diagnostic kits (SNAP Duo FIV/FeLV Test; Virbac Laboratories, Carros, France).
 
Statistic analysis
 
The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version 25) and the results were expressed as a percentage (%) or prevalence. The comparison between prevalence groups (parasites, retroviruses, different diseases) and risk factors (age, sex and health status) was evaluated using the chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test. The differences are considered significant at p<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Presentation of the stray cat population studied
 
Analysis of the results (Table 1) shows that the prevalence of clinically affected (sick) cats in the stray cat population studied is very high, at 85% (229/270). Fifteen per cent (41/270) of the cats were clinically healthy.

Table 1: Prevalence of stray cats examined according to age and sex.


       
Regarding the effect of age, young cats are more susceptible to various diseases than adult and older cats, with a very high prevalence of 92.63% (p < 0.05). Our results are comparable to those of Chesnay (2004), who found that young cats are most at risk, with a percentage of 75%. However, our results are inconsistent with the data from Hallab (2022), who found that adult cats are most at risk, with a prevalence of 55%, compared to 45% for young cats.
       
Furthermore, the impact on both sexes is evident: prevalence rates are very high (90.26% are males and 80.89% are females) and there is a slightly significant predominance of male cats (p<0.05; Table 1). These findings are consistent with studies by Hajipour et al. (2015) and Hallab (2022). The latter showed that 58% of affected cats are male, compared to 42% females.
       
The relatively high percentage of affected male cats is directly related to their lifestyle, characterised by frequent fighting and battles for territory and/or mating. The lower prevalence observed in older cats (66.66%) could be explained, on the one hand, by a reduced cohort in the present study (only 27 older cats compared to 148 adults and 95 kittens) and, on the other hand, by the relatively short survival time of stray cats. Survival beyond four years is rare and fewer than 1% of cats survive seven years or more (Crawford et al., 2020), compared to domestic cats, which can live up to 16 years.
 
Gastrointestinal parasitism
 
Coproscopy examination of stool samples from 270 urban stray cats revealed that 187 of the cats were carriers of at least one species of gastrointestinal parasite, representing a prevalence of 69.92% (Table 2).

Table 2: Prevalence of parasitic infections, parasite groups and species in stray cats.


       
This prevalence is generally lower than reported in the literature. For example, Pereira et al., (2021) observed that the frequency of gastrointestinal parasites was 77.3% in Brazil and Ahmadi et al. (2024) found a prevalence of 83.02% in Shiraz (Iran). However, our values are higher than the prevalence rates obtained by Slimane et al. (2022) in Oran (Algeria), where 60.8% of domestic cats were infested with gastrointestinal parasites. These variations could be explained by the geographical location of the study area and the influence of climatic conditions, such as humidity or temperature, as well as by the effect of the season, sample size and diet of the cats concerned.
       
Seven parasitic species belonging to three major groups of gastrointestinal parasites were observed: nematodes (55.61%), cestodes (29.41%) and protozoa (14.97%; Table 2). The most frequently detected parasites were Toxocara spp. (55.61%), Dipylidium caninum (22.45%), Toxoplasma gondii (7.48%) and Taenia spp. (6.95%). Cystoisospora spp., Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected at lower prevalence rates (5.34%, 1.60% and 0.53%, respectively).
 
Retroviral infections
 
Comparative analysis using Fisher’s exact test, presented in Table 3, shows a seroprevalence of 13.70% (37/270) for FIV and 8.14% (22/270) for FeLV in stray cats. These rates are lower than those reported by Yahiaoui et al. (2024) in domestic cats in Algeria, who found FIV and FeLV seroprevalence values of 32.39% and 22.53%, respectively. Feline retroviruses are viral diseases transmitted mainly through bites and licking during interactions between cats (fighting, grooming, mating ) via saliva. The density of the feline population in urban areas is also a risk factor for the contamination and spread of these retroviruses.

Table 3: Seroprevalence of retroviruses in stray cats.


 
The health status of stray cats
 
After clinical and para-clinical examinations of the 270 stray cats, we determined that 229 cats were clinically ill (85%). They presented five major groups of disorders or diseases: systemic diseases (40.61%), eye disorders (27.51%), fractures and injuries (20.08%), dermatological disorders (6.55%) and otitis externa (3.05%; Table 4).

Table 4: Prevalence of diseases and disorders in stray cats according to age and sex.


       
In Italy, Grieco et al. (2021) noted that 75% (140/186) of stray cats suffered from organ failure, inflammatory disorders, tumours and parasitic infections. Castro-Prieto and Andrade-Núñez (2018) reported that many stray cats in Puerto Rico are in poor health, with a tendency to show signs of malnutrition. In contrast, Crawford et al., (2020) found that, overall, stray cats in Australia were in good physical and reproductive health, with few life-threatening injuries or macroscopic signs of disease.
 
Systemic diseases
 
These ranked first in this study (40.61%), with relatively high incidences in adult cats and males (Table 4). Lesions related to inflammatory processes of infectious origin (feline panleukopenia, coryza, AIDS, leucosis, etc.) were the most reported, with a prevalence of 37.99% (87/229). A low prevalence was reported for rat poison poisoning (a single case in a kitten) and hyperthyroidism in an elderly cat; the remaining cases (4) were related to organ failure.
       
Males are most infected due to their larger range, which is approximately twice that of females (Hansen, 2010), exposing them to a greater risk of infection. However, the place of residence is an important factor. For example, wet and dirty areas are a source of infection for feline panleukopenia in stray cats (Raheena et al., 2017; Nofira et al., 2022). In addition, the group living conditions of these cat colonies favour the emergence of contagious diseases (feline panleukopenia, coryza, FIP, etc.).
 
Ocular disorders
 
Have a prevalence of 27.51% (Table 4). Conjunctivitis (22/229; 9.60%), corneal ulcers (18/229; 7.86%) and ocular trauma and injuries (16/229; 6.98%) were the most observed ocular problems in urban stray cats in this study. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca and blindness had a low prevalence (1.74% and 0.87%, respectively) and there was only one case of uveitis.
       
The prevalence of eye disorders varies between studies. For example, in the study conducted by Catalkaya et al. (2023), the eye disorders observed in domestic cats were conjunctivitis (21.15%), keratitis (19.59%), corneal ulcer (14.09%) and dry keratoconjunctivitis (9.62%). In contrast, Kumar et al. (2018) reported that the most common eye disorders were keratoconjunctivitis (21.7%), corneal ulcer/injury (ne) (21.7%), corneal opacity (18.3%), epiphora (11.6%) and opacification (8.3%).
       
Statistical analysis reveals significant differences, with a very high incidence among young cats and male cats (p<0.05).
       
In young cats, most eye disorders are conjunctivitis (17 cases) and ulcers (6 cases). These are most often caused by maternal infection with feline herpesvirus, which is characterised by lifelong excretion under stress (kidding). In addition, their immature immune system and poor eye hygiene exacerbate and complicate the situation. The absence of treatment most often leads to loss of the eye and, therefore, of vision. In this study, male cats are more prone to eye injuries (10 cases). These injuries are related to fights over territory and mating.
 
Traumatic injuries and fractures
 
Account for a relatively high incidence of 20.08% (Table 4). In this study, pelvic limb trauma ranked first, with a prevalence of (22/229; 9.60%), followed by trunk trauma (13/229; 5.67%) and thoracic limb trauma (7/229; 3.05%). The incidence of other types of traumas was relatively low.
       
The incidence of anatomical locations of trauma varies according to published studies. According to the study by Rebouh et al. (2025), the femur is the most commonly affected bone (51.1%), followed by the tibia/fibula (29.05%), the radius/ulna (10.61%) and the humerus (9.50%), whereas Dhanalakshmi et al. (2020) found that the spine were the most frequently affected, followed by the pelvic region and then the limbs. The most common causes are road accidents, hunting accidents, bites-particularly from dogs-and falls from a significant height (3 m-10 m). Bone destruction or weakening due to neoplastic diseases, nutritional or metabolic disorders can also be a cause. Huang et al. (2018) revealed that cats are more likely to be abused than dogs, which increases the risk of trauma.
       
In terms of the influence of age, young cats are more affected (25%), as reported by Rebouh et al. (2025). In general, kittens’ curiosity during the first six months after birth is a risk factor. They tend to wander outside and are unfamiliar with the environment and traffic, which contributes to fractures and trauma (Griffon et al., 1994).
 
Dermatological disorders
 
Have a low prevalence: 15 cats out of 229 (6.55%) in this study. We diagnosed dermatophytosis (7 cases), pyoderma (5 cases), atopic dermatitis (2 cases) and acne (1 case). Our results (6.55%) are much lower than those reported by Proverbio et al. (2014) in a study conducted on 273 stray cats in Italy, where the prevalence of skin lesions was 76.9%.
       
Most skin lesions observed here are due to ectoparasites and fungi. Stress, nutritional and metabolic disorders and poor hygiene and grooming due to lack of water could also explain the deterioration in coat (Serrano and Millan, 2014) and skin condition.
 
External ear infections
 
Finally, seven cases of external ear infections were observed, representing a rate of 3.05%. Our results are similar to the data from Duarte et al. (2010), which revealed a rather low prevalence (2.2%). However, Perego et al. (2014) found a prevalence of 55.1% external otitis in stray cats in northern Italy.
 
Impact in public health and ecology
 
This study demonstrates that stray cats in the Batna region play a crucial role in environmental pollution and constitute a potential reservoir for many pathogenic germs and parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, Toxocara spp., for other pets and humans. Furthermore, uncontrolled populations of stray cats can affect urban biodiversity and ecological balance, particularly through the predation of small wildlife and the spread of pathogens within urban ecosystems.
 
Limitations of the study
 
This study has some limitations. The sampling was restricted to a specific geographic area and a small number of animals, which may not represent the true situation of this population in Algeria. Moreover, the analysis method used, particularly for parasitological analysis, does not accurately reveal the true rate of parasitic infections such as toxoplasmosis, which requires the antibody prevalence using the ELISA method. In addition, for the different diseases, we have relied solely on clinical examinations, which may sometimes be considered insufficient and may require confirmation with blood tests and radiological imaging.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first epidemiological and clinical report on the stray cat population in Algeria. It provides a detailed analysis of the health and welfare situation of the colonies concerned living in vulnerable environments characterised by instability in food resources, poor hygiene and group living, which are determining factors for the transmission of parasites, viruses and bacteria (FeLV, FIV, etc.). Cat lifestyle and behaviour also play a key role in the onset of certain conditions. For example, kittens’ natural curiosity exposes them to various dangers, such as the effect of injury. In males, the need to gain territory and fight for mating opportunities promotes injuries such as trauma and diseases transmitted by bites or scratches.
       
We recommend the implementation of the following measures to protect the stray cat population and improve their welfare and health, thereby preserving public health and the ecological balance of the urban environment:
- Widespread vaccination, not only against rabies, as is the case in Algeria, but also against other vaccine-preventable diseases (coryza, leukaemia, feline panleukopenia).
- External and internal deworming of stray cats to limit the risk of parasitic zoonoses.
- Widespread sterilisation to reduce the feline population.
- State-wide implementation of a national programme of protection and periodic medical surveillance conducted by state veterinarians, veterinary institutes and other relevant actors.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank the head of the Domestic Carnivore Clinic of the Veterinary Science Department at the University of Batna 1 for their assistance in completing this work.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The author declares no conflict of interest. This research received no external funding.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Health Status of Urban Stray Cats in Batna, Algeria: An Epidemiological and Clinical Survey

    N
    N. Hafid1,*
    1Laboratory of Environmental, Health and Animal Production, Institute of Veterinary Sciences and Agronomic Sciences, Batna-1 University, 05000, Algeria.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Our work aims to assess the health status of a stray cat population through an epidemiological and clinical study of urban stray cats in the Batna province (north-eastern Algeria) by determining the prevalence of various diseases and risk factors.

    Methods: Overall, 270 stray cats were captured and examined. Faecal samples were collected and examined using various coprological techniques. For retroviruses, serological tests were performed on blood samples using FeLV and FIV rapid diagnostic kits. The prevalence of various conditions (gastrointestinal parasitic infections, retroviruses, systemic diseases, eye disorders, etc.) was studied according to the age, sex and health status of the cats examined.

    Result: Analysis of the results shows a very high prevalence of clinically affected cats at 85% (229/270), most often in young cats (92.63%) and males (90.26%). In addition, 69.92% of cats were infested with at least one gastrointestinal parasite and the most prevalent parasites were Toxocara spp. (55.61%), Dipylidium caninum (22.45%), Toxoplasma gondii (7.48%) and Taenia spp. (6.95%). Cystoisospora spp., Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected at lower prevalence. Regarding retroviruses, a seroprevalence of 13.70% (37/270) for FIV and 8.14% (22/270) for FeLV was detected. Clinically, five major groups of disorders were observed: systemic diseases (40.61%), eye disorders (27.51%), trauma and fractures (20.08%), skin disorders (6.55%) and otitis externa (3.05%). These findings highlight the high burden of infectious and clinical disorders in stray cats in Batna and emphasise the need for improved veterinary management and public health surveillance.

    INTRODUCTION

    Stray cats, also known as street or feral cats, are felines that have no domestic home or anyone to care for them daily, such as cats abandoned by their owners or those born feral. They are found in streets and alleys, in residential areas, around restaurants and even in rubbish dumps (Huang et al., 2018).
           
    The proliferation and formation of feral cat colonies are mainly determined by the availability of water and food resources. Their survival is strongly influenced by their living conditions (hygiene, physical aggression, etc.); they are generally vulnerable and particularly exposed to various diseases and infections.
           
    The health status of the stray cat population has been assessed in several publications in recent years and the prevalence of certain infectious and/or parasitic diseases has been studied and determined (Duarte et al., 2010; Grieco et al., 2021; Nofira et al., 2022).
           
    However, in Algeria, the health situation of this population is marginalised and rarely documented. Published studies mainly address the risks of zoonotic disease transmission by these colonies, such as rabies and leptospirosis and methods for their eradication (Salimi et al., 2022; Zaidi et al., 2022).
           
    Our work aims to assess the health status of the stray cat population through an epidemiological and clinical study of urban stray cats in the wilaya of Batna by conducting clinical and complementary examinations (coproscopy, serological screening) to analyse the situation statistically. In doing so, this study will contribute to improving the management and welfare of this population. It will also contribute to defining and improving public health through the management of zoonotic risks and environmental contamination.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Ethical approval
     
    The proposal and the risk assessment of the study were submitted and approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the University of Batna 1, department of Veterinary sciences.
     
    Area, animals and study design
     
    This study was conducted in urban areas in the city of Batna and its surrounding regions in the Batna province in north-eastern Algeria from January 2022 to May 2025.
           
    Overall, 270 stray cats were captured using specific equipment, including traps, transport cages and anti-scratch gloves. The cats were then immediately transported to the Domestic Carnivore Clinic at the University of Batna 1, where they were identified and classified according to sex (female and male intact), age group (young: <1 year; adult: 1-7 years; senior: >7 years) and health status. All animals underwent a physical clinical examination, after which observed conditions were categorised into different disorders (skin, eye and ear disorders, trauma and fractures).
           
    For the parasitological examination, faecal samples from the first defecation were collected and examined macroscopically and microscopically using standard coprological techniques, including direct examination with Lugol’s iodine, simple sedimentation, formalin- ether sedimentation and flotation (Dar et al., 2022). In addition, blood samples were analysed using FeLV and FIV rapid diagnostic kits (SNAP Duo FIV/FeLV Test; Virbac Laboratories, Carros, France).
     
    Statistic analysis
     
    The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version 25) and the results were expressed as a percentage (%) or prevalence. The comparison between prevalence groups (parasites, retroviruses, different diseases) and risk factors (age, sex and health status) was evaluated using the chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test. The differences are considered significant at p<0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Presentation of the stray cat population studied
     
    Analysis of the results (Table 1) shows that the prevalence of clinically affected (sick) cats in the stray cat population studied is very high, at 85% (229/270). Fifteen per cent (41/270) of the cats were clinically healthy.

    Table 1: Prevalence of stray cats examined according to age and sex.


           
    Regarding the effect of age, young cats are more susceptible to various diseases than adult and older cats, with a very high prevalence of 92.63% (p < 0.05). Our results are comparable to those of Chesnay (2004), who found that young cats are most at risk, with a percentage of 75%. However, our results are inconsistent with the data from Hallab (2022), who found that adult cats are most at risk, with a prevalence of 55%, compared to 45% for young cats.
           
    Furthermore, the impact on both sexes is evident: prevalence rates are very high (90.26% are males and 80.89% are females) and there is a slightly significant predominance of male cats (p<0.05; Table 1). These findings are consistent with studies by Hajipour et al. (2015) and Hallab (2022). The latter showed that 58% of affected cats are male, compared to 42% females.
           
    The relatively high percentage of affected male cats is directly related to their lifestyle, characterised by frequent fighting and battles for territory and/or mating. The lower prevalence observed in older cats (66.66%) could be explained, on the one hand, by a reduced cohort in the present study (only 27 older cats compared to 148 adults and 95 kittens) and, on the other hand, by the relatively short survival time of stray cats. Survival beyond four years is rare and fewer than 1% of cats survive seven years or more (Crawford et al., 2020), compared to domestic cats, which can live up to 16 years.
     
    Gastrointestinal parasitism
     
    Coproscopy examination of stool samples from 270 urban stray cats revealed that 187 of the cats were carriers of at least one species of gastrointestinal parasite, representing a prevalence of 69.92% (Table 2).

    Table 2: Prevalence of parasitic infections, parasite groups and species in stray cats.


           
    This prevalence is generally lower than reported in the literature. For example, Pereira et al., (2021) observed that the frequency of gastrointestinal parasites was 77.3% in Brazil and Ahmadi et al. (2024) found a prevalence of 83.02% in Shiraz (Iran). However, our values are higher than the prevalence rates obtained by Slimane et al. (2022) in Oran (Algeria), where 60.8% of domestic cats were infested with gastrointestinal parasites. These variations could be explained by the geographical location of the study area and the influence of climatic conditions, such as humidity or temperature, as well as by the effect of the season, sample size and diet of the cats concerned.
           
    Seven parasitic species belonging to three major groups of gastrointestinal parasites were observed: nematodes (55.61%), cestodes (29.41%) and protozoa (14.97%; Table 2). The most frequently detected parasites were Toxocara spp. (55.61%), Dipylidium caninum (22.45%), Toxoplasma gondii (7.48%) and Taenia spp. (6.95%). Cystoisospora spp., Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were detected at lower prevalence rates (5.34%, 1.60% and 0.53%, respectively).
     
    Retroviral infections
     
    Comparative analysis using Fisher’s exact test, presented in Table 3, shows a seroprevalence of 13.70% (37/270) for FIV and 8.14% (22/270) for FeLV in stray cats. These rates are lower than those reported by Yahiaoui et al. (2024) in domestic cats in Algeria, who found FIV and FeLV seroprevalence values of 32.39% and 22.53%, respectively. Feline retroviruses are viral diseases transmitted mainly through bites and licking during interactions between cats (fighting, grooming, mating ) via saliva. The density of the feline population in urban areas is also a risk factor for the contamination and spread of these retroviruses.

    Table 3: Seroprevalence of retroviruses in stray cats.


     
    The health status of stray cats
     
    After clinical and para-clinical examinations of the 270 stray cats, we determined that 229 cats were clinically ill (85%). They presented five major groups of disorders or diseases: systemic diseases (40.61%), eye disorders (27.51%), fractures and injuries (20.08%), dermatological disorders (6.55%) and otitis externa (3.05%; Table 4).

    Table 4: Prevalence of diseases and disorders in stray cats according to age and sex.


           
    In Italy, Grieco et al. (2021) noted that 75% (140/186) of stray cats suffered from organ failure, inflammatory disorders, tumours and parasitic infections. Castro-Prieto and Andrade-Núñez (2018) reported that many stray cats in Puerto Rico are in poor health, with a tendency to show signs of malnutrition. In contrast, Crawford et al., (2020) found that, overall, stray cats in Australia were in good physical and reproductive health, with few life-threatening injuries or macroscopic signs of disease.
     
    Systemic diseases
     
    These ranked first in this study (40.61%), with relatively high incidences in adult cats and males (Table 4). Lesions related to inflammatory processes of infectious origin (feline panleukopenia, coryza, AIDS, leucosis, etc.) were the most reported, with a prevalence of 37.99% (87/229). A low prevalence was reported for rat poison poisoning (a single case in a kitten) and hyperthyroidism in an elderly cat; the remaining cases (4) were related to organ failure.
           
    Males are most infected due to their larger range, which is approximately twice that of females (Hansen, 2010), exposing them to a greater risk of infection. However, the place of residence is an important factor. For example, wet and dirty areas are a source of infection for feline panleukopenia in stray cats (Raheena et al., 2017; Nofira et al., 2022). In addition, the group living conditions of these cat colonies favour the emergence of contagious diseases (feline panleukopenia, coryza, FIP, etc.).
     
    Ocular disorders
     
    Have a prevalence of 27.51% (Table 4). Conjunctivitis (22/229; 9.60%), corneal ulcers (18/229; 7.86%) and ocular trauma and injuries (16/229; 6.98%) were the most observed ocular problems in urban stray cats in this study. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca and blindness had a low prevalence (1.74% and 0.87%, respectively) and there was only one case of uveitis.
           
    The prevalence of eye disorders varies between studies. For example, in the study conducted by Catalkaya et al. (2023), the eye disorders observed in domestic cats were conjunctivitis (21.15%), keratitis (19.59%), corneal ulcer (14.09%) and dry keratoconjunctivitis (9.62%). In contrast, Kumar et al. (2018) reported that the most common eye disorders were keratoconjunctivitis (21.7%), corneal ulcer/injury (ne) (21.7%), corneal opacity (18.3%), epiphora (11.6%) and opacification (8.3%).
           
    Statistical analysis reveals significant differences, with a very high incidence among young cats and male cats (p<0.05).
           
    In young cats, most eye disorders are conjunctivitis (17 cases) and ulcers (6 cases). These are most often caused by maternal infection with feline herpesvirus, which is characterised by lifelong excretion under stress (kidding). In addition, their immature immune system and poor eye hygiene exacerbate and complicate the situation. The absence of treatment most often leads to loss of the eye and, therefore, of vision. In this study, male cats are more prone to eye injuries (10 cases). These injuries are related to fights over territory and mating.
     
    Traumatic injuries and fractures
     
    Account for a relatively high incidence of 20.08% (Table 4). In this study, pelvic limb trauma ranked first, with a prevalence of (22/229; 9.60%), followed by trunk trauma (13/229; 5.67%) and thoracic limb trauma (7/229; 3.05%). The incidence of other types of traumas was relatively low.
           
    The incidence of anatomical locations of trauma varies according to published studies. According to the study by Rebouh et al. (2025), the femur is the most commonly affected bone (51.1%), followed by the tibia/fibula (29.05%), the radius/ulna (10.61%) and the humerus (9.50%), whereas Dhanalakshmi et al. (2020) found that the spine were the most frequently affected, followed by the pelvic region and then the limbs. The most common causes are road accidents, hunting accidents, bites-particularly from dogs-and falls from a significant height (3 m-10 m). Bone destruction or weakening due to neoplastic diseases, nutritional or metabolic disorders can also be a cause. Huang et al. (2018) revealed that cats are more likely to be abused than dogs, which increases the risk of trauma.
           
    In terms of the influence of age, young cats are more affected (25%), as reported by Rebouh et al. (2025). In general, kittens’ curiosity during the first six months after birth is a risk factor. They tend to wander outside and are unfamiliar with the environment and traffic, which contributes to fractures and trauma (Griffon et al., 1994).
     
    Dermatological disorders
     
    Have a low prevalence: 15 cats out of 229 (6.55%) in this study. We diagnosed dermatophytosis (7 cases), pyoderma (5 cases), atopic dermatitis (2 cases) and acne (1 case). Our results (6.55%) are much lower than those reported by Proverbio et al. (2014) in a study conducted on 273 stray cats in Italy, where the prevalence of skin lesions was 76.9%.
           
    Most skin lesions observed here are due to ectoparasites and fungi. Stress, nutritional and metabolic disorders and poor hygiene and grooming due to lack of water could also explain the deterioration in coat (Serrano and Millan, 2014) and skin condition.
     
    External ear infections
     
    Finally, seven cases of external ear infections were observed, representing a rate of 3.05%. Our results are similar to the data from Duarte et al. (2010), which revealed a rather low prevalence (2.2%). However, Perego et al. (2014) found a prevalence of 55.1% external otitis in stray cats in northern Italy.
     
    Impact in public health and ecology
     
    This study demonstrates that stray cats in the Batna region play a crucial role in environmental pollution and constitute a potential reservoir for many pathogenic germs and parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, Toxocara spp., for other pets and humans. Furthermore, uncontrolled populations of stray cats can affect urban biodiversity and ecological balance, particularly through the predation of small wildlife and the spread of pathogens within urban ecosystems.
     
    Limitations of the study
     
    This study has some limitations. The sampling was restricted to a specific geographic area and a small number of animals, which may not represent the true situation of this population in Algeria. Moreover, the analysis method used, particularly for parasitological analysis, does not accurately reveal the true rate of parasitic infections such as toxoplasmosis, which requires the antibody prevalence using the ELISA method. In addition, for the different diseases, we have relied solely on clinical examinations, which may sometimes be considered insufficient and may require confirmation with blood tests and radiological imaging.

    CONCLUSION

    This study is the first epidemiological and clinical report on the stray cat population in Algeria. It provides a detailed analysis of the health and welfare situation of the colonies concerned living in vulnerable environments characterised by instability in food resources, poor hygiene and group living, which are determining factors for the transmission of parasites, viruses and bacteria (FeLV, FIV, etc.). Cat lifestyle and behaviour also play a key role in the onset of certain conditions. For example, kittens’ natural curiosity exposes them to various dangers, such as the effect of injury. In males, the need to gain territory and fight for mating opportunities promotes injuries such as trauma and diseases transmitted by bites or scratches.
           
    We recommend the implementation of the following measures to protect the stray cat population and improve their welfare and health, thereby preserving public health and the ecological balance of the urban environment:
    - Widespread vaccination, not only against rabies, as is the case in Algeria, but also against other vaccine-preventable diseases (coryza, leukaemia, feline panleukopenia).
    - External and internal deworming of stray cats to limit the risk of parasitic zoonoses.
    - Widespread sterilisation to reduce the feline population.
    - State-wide implementation of a national programme of protection and periodic medical surveillance conducted by state veterinarians, veterinary institutes and other relevant actors.

    AKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The author would like to thank the head of the Domestic Carnivore Clinic of the Veterinary Science Department at the University of Batna 1 for their assistance in completing this work.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The author declares no conflict of interest. This research received no external funding.

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