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Potassium Silicate-mediated Physiological and Biochemical Responses in Rosa damascena under Drought

T
T.I. Mohamed Rizwan1
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3790-6180
S
Shakila Sadasivam1,*
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4513-7014
R
Rajiv Govind1
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9563-2577
R
Ravindran Angelin Silviya2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8017-1875
S
Sathees Kumar Kathirvel3
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0060-2645
1Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
2Department of Soil Science, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
3Department of Basic Sciences, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Drought stress is a major abiotic factor limiting the physiological and biochemical performance of rose plants. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of foliar application of potassium silicate on physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under water-deficit conditions.

Methods: The experiment was conducted in a factorial completely randomized design with three irrigation regimes (100%, 75% and 50% FC) and five potassium silicate concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1). Various physiological and biochemical parameters such as relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll pigments, membrane stability index (MSI), chlorophyll stability index (CSI), epicuticular wax, proline and phenol contents were analyzed under drought stress conditions.

Result: Drought stress significantly reduced RWC, chlorophyll pigments, MSI and CSI, while increasing epicuticular wax deposition, phenol content and proline accumulation. Under 100% field capacity (FC), treated plants showed higher relative water content, chlorophyll pigments, membrane stability index and chlorophyll stability index than untreated plants. Under 75% and 50% FC, drought stress reduced these physiological traits, whereas potassium silicate, particularly at 150 mg L-1, significantly mitigated these adverse effects. Correlation analysis showed positive associations among RWC, chlorophyll pigments, MSI and CSI, whereas proline and phenol contents showed negative associations. The results demonstrated that foliar application of potassium silicate at 150 mg L-1 enhanced drought tolerance in early stages of damask rose.

INTRODUCTION

Drought is a major abiotic stress that disrupts normal metabolic processes, reduces plant growth and lowers productivity (Ahmed et al., 2014; Passioura, 2010; Salehi-Lisar and Bakhshayeshan-Agdam, 2016). In Rosa damascena, drought stress is a major constraint to growth and productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Various approaches, including foliar antitranspirants, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth regulators and nutrient management, have been investigated to mitigate drought stress. Among these, foliar antitranspirants effectively reduce transpiration, improve plant water status and enhance drought tolerance by minimizing water loss from leaf surfaces (Degif and Woltering, 2015; Lakshmi et al., 2025).
       
In the present study, potassium silicate was used as a foliar antitranspirant and as a source of potassium and silicon, both of which play important roles in photosynthesis, osmoregulation, stomatal regulation and stress tolerance (Houmani and Corpas, 2026). Silicon enhances water retention, maintains photosynthetic activity and improves plant defence under drought stress (Prisa, 2023). As a film-forming antitranspirant, foliar-applied potassium silicate reduces cuticular transpiration and improves plant water status under moisture-deficit conditions (Henintsoa et al., 2025). Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of foliar-applied potassium silicate on the physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under drought stress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted at the Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu from November 2025 to May 2026. Plants of Rosa damascena Mill. were grown in polybags (20 x 20 x 35 cm) filled with a potting mixture of red soil, farmyard manure (FYM) and cocopeat in a ratio of 2:1:1 (Table 1). After a 60-day establishment period, drought stress was imposed gravimetrically by maintaining plants at 100, 75 and 50% field capacity for 60 days (Khondoker et al., 2019). Potassium silicate was applied as a foliar antitranspirant spray at concentrations of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1, while untreated plants served as controls under each irrigation regime. All the physiological and biochemical responses were recorded 4 days after the foliar application of potassium silicate. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with three irrigation regimes, five potassium silicate levels (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1) under each irrigation regime (Table 2). Each treatment was replicated thrice with five plants per replicate (subsamples).

Table 1: Soil characteristics of the growing media used in the study.



Table 2: Treatment details of the experiment, indicating irrigation regimes (I) with potassium silicate spray (P) under different field capacities (FC).


       
Relative water content (RWC, %) was determined following Yamasaki and Dillenburg (1999). Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (mg g-1 FW) were estimated spectrophotometrically according to Arnon (1949). Membrane stability index (MSI, %) and chlorophyll stability index (CSI, %) were determined using the method of Sairam et al., (1997). Epicuticular wax (µg cm-2), total phenol (µg GAE g-1 FW) and proline (µmol g-1 FW) contents were estimated following Ebercon et al., (1977); Malik and Singh (1980) and Bates et al., (1973), respectively. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) using R version 4.5.2. Treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at P≤0.05 and correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationships among the physiological and drought-responsive traits.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physiological response of Rosa damascena under drought stress
 
Relative water content (RWC) declined significantly with increasing drought stress, decreasing from 87.30-90.95% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 70.10-80.70% at 75% FC and 59.25-70.10% at 50% FC (Fig 1). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved RWC under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values. Under 75% FC, RWC increased from 70.10% in control to 80.70%, while under 50% FC it increased from 59.25% to 69.60%. Increasing the concentration beyond 150 mg L-1 did not provide further improvement. The reduction in RWC under drought stress is attributed to restricted water uptake and impaired cellular hydration, whereas potassium silicate improved plant water status by reducing transpiration through silica deposition on the leaf surface (Farooq et al., 2009; Liang et al., 2007; Ashraf et al., 2025). Similar improvements in RWC following silicon application under drought stress have been reported in rose by Al-Yasi  et al. (2020); Adamipour et al., (2022); Farahani et al., (2021) and in rye by Hattori et al., (2008).

Fig 1: Relative water content (%) of Rosa damascena under different irrigation regimes (50%, 75% and 100% FC) as influenced by foliar application of potassium silicate (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1).


       
Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), chlorophyll-b (Chl-b) and total chlorophyll contents declined progressively with increasing drought stress (Fig 2). In untreated plants, Chl-a decreased from 1.05 mg g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 0.75 mg g-1 FW at 50% FC, while total chlorophyll declined from 1.40 to 1.00 mg g-1 FW. Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved chlorophyll pigments under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values. Under 75% FC, total chlorophyll increased from 1.20 to 1.57 mg g-1 FW, whereas under 50% FC it increased from 1.00 to 1.36 mg g-1 FW. Increasing potassium silicate beyond 150 mg L-1 did not result in further improvement. The decline in chlorophyll under drought stress is associated with chlorophyll degradation, chloroplast damage and oxidative stress, whereas potassium silicate-maintained chlorophyll integrity and photosynthetic activity by improving membrane stability and antioxidant defence (Gupta et al., 2020; Zarif et al., 2025; Goyal et al., 2025; Liang et al., 2007). Similar beneficial effects of silicon on chlorophyll retention under drought stress have been reported in rose by Al-Yasi et al., (2020); Adamipour et al., (2020); Farahani et al., (2021); Aalam et al., (2024); Shi et al., (2019); Hassan et al., (2017) and Soundararajan et al., (2017).

Fig 2: Effect of potassium silicate spray on chlorophyll pigment of Rosa damascena under drought (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


       
Membrane stability index (MSI) declined significantly with increasing drought stress, decreasing from 70.50% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 59.86% at 75% FC and 50.67% at 50% FC (Fig 3A). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved MSI under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values of 72.90% and 62.40% under 75% and 50% FC, respectively. The reduction in MSI under drought stress is associated with oxidative damage and membrane lipid peroxidation, whereas potassium silicate enhanced membrane integrity and reduced oxidative stress, thereby improving drought tolerance. Similar findings have been reported in rose by Zarif et al., (2025) and Farahani et al., (2020).

Fig 3: Effect of potassium silicate spray on (A) membrane stability index (%) and (B) chlorophyll stability index (%) of Rosa damascena under drought stress (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


       
Chlorophyll stability index (CSI) decreased significantly with increasing drought stress, declining from 82.30% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 75.40% under severe drought (50% FC) (Fig 3B). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved CSI under all irrigation levels, with 150 mg L-1 producing the highest values. Under severe drought, CSI increased from 75.40% in untreated plants to 82.92% following potassium silicate application. The improvement in CSI suggests that potassium silicate enhanced chlorophyll stability by protecting chloroplast membranes and reducing drought-induced oxidative damage (Liang et al., 2007; Farooq et al., 2009; Zhu and Gong, 2014; Anjum et al., 2017; Soundararajan et al., 2017; Zarif et al., 2025).
 
Changes in the drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena
 
Epicuticular wax content increased progressively with increasing drought severity and potassium silicate application (Fig 4A). Under well-watered conditions (100% FC), untreated plants recorded 46.27 µg cm-2 wax content, which increased to 52.34 µg cm-2 under moderate drought stress (75% FC) and further to 59.60 µg cm-2 under severe drought stress (50% FC). The increase in epicuticular wax content under moisture stress indicates an adaptive protective response that helps reduce water loss and maintain plant water status under drought conditions. Enhanced wax deposition on the leaf surface may contribute to reducing cuticular water loss and protecting tissues from excessive dehydration (Wissemann et al., 2007). Drought-induced increases in wax accumulation have been associated with activation of cuticle-related metabolic pathways and enhanced biosynthesis of long-chain hydrocarbons that improve leaf resistance to water loss (Buschhaus et al., 2007). Foliar application of potassium silicates further enhanced wax accumulation under all irrigation regimes. Under 100% FC, wax content increased from 46.27 µg cm-2 in untreated plants to 54.80 µg cm-2 with 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate. Under moderate drought stress (75% FC), wax content increased from 52.34 µg cm-2 to 60.97 µg cm-2, while under severe drought stress (50% FC), wax deposition increased from 59.60 µg cm-2  to 68.28 µg cm-2  following application of 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate. Among all treatments, the highest epicuticular wax deposition was recorded under severe drought stress combined with 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate application. Similar increases in epicuticular wax accumulation under water-deficit conditions have been reported in rose and other ornamental crops (Simoes et al., 2020). These findings suggest that potassium silicate promotes epicuticular wax deposition, which may contribute to drought adaptation.
       
Total phenol content increased with increasing drought stress, rising from 1225.40 µg GAE g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 1368.20 µg GAE g-1 FW at 75% FC and 1425.60 µg GAE g-1 FW at 50% FC (Fig 4B). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly reduced phenol accumulation under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the lowest values. Under 75% FC, phenol content decreased from 1368.20 to 1186.20 µg GAE g-1 FW, while under 50% FC it declined from 1425.60 to 1248.30 µg GAE g-1 FW. However, phenol content increased slightly at 200 mg L-1 compared with 150 mg L-1. The increased phenol accumulation under drought reflects activation of antioxidant defence against oxidative stress, whereas potassium silicate reduced phenol synthesis by alleviating stress and improving physiological stability (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013; Sapre and vakharia, 2016; Kim et al., 2017). Similar responses have been reported in Rosa damascena by Caser et al., (2019) and Hessini et al., (2022).
       
Proline content increased significantly with increasing drought stress, rising from 0.86 µmol g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 1.52 µmol g-1 FW at 75% FC and 2.38 µmol g-1 FW at 50% FC (Fig 4C). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly reduced proline accumulation under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the lowest values. Under 75% FC, proline content decreased from 1.52 to 1.17 µmol g-1 FW, while under 50% FC it declined from 2.38 to 1.78 µmol g-1 FW. The increased proline accumulation under drought stress reflects osmotic adjustment and protection against dehydration, whereas potassium silicate alleviated osmotic stress by improving plant water status and membrane integrity (Farooq et al., 2009; Yokota et al., 2002; Liang et al., 2007). Similar reductions in proline accumulation following silicon application have been reported by Gunes et al., (2008) and Kim et al., (2017), indicating improved physiological stability and drought tolerance.

Fig 4: Influence of drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena under drought stress (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


 
Correlation analysis of physiological and drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena
 
Correlation analysis showed significant relationships among the physiological and drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena under drought stress and potassium silicate application (Fig 5). Relative water content (RWC) was positively correlated with chlorophyll-a (r = 0.91), chlorophyll-b (r = 0.91), total chlorophyll (r = 0.91), membrane stability index (MSI; r = 0.97) and chlorophyll stability index (CSI; r = 0.89). Chlorophyll pigments were also strongly correlated with each other (r = 1.00) and positively associated with MSI and CSI, indicating improved photosynthetic efficiency and membrane stability (Farooq et al., 2009; Al-Yasi  et al. (2020); Liang et al., 2007; Soundararajan et al., 2017; Hassan et al., 2017; Tamilselvan et al., 2024). In contrast, proline and total phenol contents were negatively correlated with the physiological traits, while epicuticular wax was positively correlated with proline (r = 0.74). These relationships indicate that potassium silicate maintained physiological performance while reducing drought-induced biochemical stress, thereby improving drought tolerance in Rosa damascena (Farooq et al., 2009; Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013; Buschhaus et al., 2007; Wissemann et al., 2007).

Fig 5: Correlation analysis of potassium silicate spray and trait variables in damask rose under drought conditions.

CONCLUSION

Foliar application of potassium silicate mitigated adverse effects by improving physiological performance and reducing drought-induced stress. Among the concentrations, 150 mg L-1 potassium silicate was the most effective in enhancing water status, chlorophyll retention, membrane integrity and overall drought tolerance, particularly under 75% and 50% field capacity. Therefore, foliar application of potassium silicate at 150 mg L-1 can be recommended as an effective strategy to improve drought resilience and maintain the early physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under limited water availability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect loss resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Potassium Silicate-mediated Physiological and Biochemical Responses in Rosa damascena under Drought

    T
    T.I. Mohamed Rizwan1
    https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3790-6180
    S
    Shakila Sadasivam1,*
    https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4513-7014
    R
    Rajiv Govind1
    https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9563-2577
    R
    Ravindran Angelin Silviya2
    https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8017-1875
    S
    Sathees Kumar Kathirvel3
    https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0060-2645
    1Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
    2Department of Soil Science, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.
    3Department of Basic Sciences, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu-603 201, Tamil Nadu, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Drought stress is a major abiotic factor limiting the physiological and biochemical performance of rose plants. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of foliar application of potassium silicate on physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under water-deficit conditions.

    Methods: The experiment was conducted in a factorial completely randomized design with three irrigation regimes (100%, 75% and 50% FC) and five potassium silicate concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1). Various physiological and biochemical parameters such as relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll pigments, membrane stability index (MSI), chlorophyll stability index (CSI), epicuticular wax, proline and phenol contents were analyzed under drought stress conditions.

    Result: Drought stress significantly reduced RWC, chlorophyll pigments, MSI and CSI, while increasing epicuticular wax deposition, phenol content and proline accumulation. Under 100% field capacity (FC), treated plants showed higher relative water content, chlorophyll pigments, membrane stability index and chlorophyll stability index than untreated plants. Under 75% and 50% FC, drought stress reduced these physiological traits, whereas potassium silicate, particularly at 150 mg L-1, significantly mitigated these adverse effects. Correlation analysis showed positive associations among RWC, chlorophyll pigments, MSI and CSI, whereas proline and phenol contents showed negative associations. The results demonstrated that foliar application of potassium silicate at 150 mg L-1 enhanced drought tolerance in early stages of damask rose.

    INTRODUCTION

    Drought is a major abiotic stress that disrupts normal metabolic processes, reduces plant growth and lowers productivity (Ahmed et al., 2014; Passioura, 2010; Salehi-Lisar and Bakhshayeshan-Agdam, 2016). In Rosa damascena, drought stress is a major constraint to growth and productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Various approaches, including foliar antitranspirants, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth regulators and nutrient management, have been investigated to mitigate drought stress. Among these, foliar antitranspirants effectively reduce transpiration, improve plant water status and enhance drought tolerance by minimizing water loss from leaf surfaces (Degif and Woltering, 2015; Lakshmi et al., 2025).
           
    In the present study, potassium silicate was used as a foliar antitranspirant and as a source of potassium and silicon, both of which play important roles in photosynthesis, osmoregulation, stomatal regulation and stress tolerance (Houmani and Corpas, 2026). Silicon enhances water retention, maintains photosynthetic activity and improves plant defence under drought stress (Prisa, 2023). As a film-forming antitranspirant, foliar-applied potassium silicate reduces cuticular transpiration and improves plant water status under moisture-deficit conditions (Henintsoa et al., 2025). Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of foliar-applied potassium silicate on the physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under drought stress.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The experiment was conducted at the Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SRM College of Agricultural Sciences, Baburayanpettai, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu from November 2025 to May 2026. Plants of Rosa damascena Mill. were grown in polybags (20 x 20 x 35 cm) filled with a potting mixture of red soil, farmyard manure (FYM) and cocopeat in a ratio of 2:1:1 (Table 1). After a 60-day establishment period, drought stress was imposed gravimetrically by maintaining plants at 100, 75 and 50% field capacity for 60 days (Khondoker et al., 2019). Potassium silicate was applied as a foliar antitranspirant spray at concentrations of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1, while untreated plants served as controls under each irrigation regime. All the physiological and biochemical responses were recorded 4 days after the foliar application of potassium silicate. The experiment was laid out in a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with three irrigation regimes, five potassium silicate levels (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1) under each irrigation regime (Table 2). Each treatment was replicated thrice with five plants per replicate (subsamples).

    Table 1: Soil characteristics of the growing media used in the study.



    Table 2: Treatment details of the experiment, indicating irrigation regimes (I) with potassium silicate spray (P) under different field capacities (FC).


           
    Relative water content (RWC, %) was determined following Yamasaki and Dillenburg (1999). Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (mg g-1 FW) were estimated spectrophotometrically according to Arnon (1949). Membrane stability index (MSI, %) and chlorophyll stability index (CSI, %) were determined using the method of Sairam et al., (1997). Epicuticular wax (µg cm-2), total phenol (µg GAE g-1 FW) and proline (µmol g-1 FW) contents were estimated following Ebercon et al., (1977); Malik and Singh (1980) and Bates et al., (1973), respectively. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) using R version 4.5.2. Treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at P≤0.05 and correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationships among the physiological and drought-responsive traits.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Physiological response of Rosa damascena under drought stress
     
    Relative water content (RWC) declined significantly with increasing drought stress, decreasing from 87.30-90.95% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 70.10-80.70% at 75% FC and 59.25-70.10% at 50% FC (Fig 1). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved RWC under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values. Under 75% FC, RWC increased from 70.10% in control to 80.70%, while under 50% FC it increased from 59.25% to 69.60%. Increasing the concentration beyond 150 mg L-1 did not provide further improvement. The reduction in RWC under drought stress is attributed to restricted water uptake and impaired cellular hydration, whereas potassium silicate improved plant water status by reducing transpiration through silica deposition on the leaf surface (Farooq et al., 2009; Liang et al., 2007; Ashraf et al., 2025). Similar improvements in RWC following silicon application under drought stress have been reported in rose by Al-Yasi  et al. (2020); Adamipour et al., (2022); Farahani et al., (2021) and in rye by Hattori et al., (2008).

    Fig 1: Relative water content (%) of Rosa damascena under different irrigation regimes (50%, 75% and 100% FC) as influenced by foliar application of potassium silicate (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg L-1).


           
    Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), chlorophyll-b (Chl-b) and total chlorophyll contents declined progressively with increasing drought stress (Fig 2). In untreated plants, Chl-a decreased from 1.05 mg g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 0.75 mg g-1 FW at 50% FC, while total chlorophyll declined from 1.40 to 1.00 mg g-1 FW. Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved chlorophyll pigments under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values. Under 75% FC, total chlorophyll increased from 1.20 to 1.57 mg g-1 FW, whereas under 50% FC it increased from 1.00 to 1.36 mg g-1 FW. Increasing potassium silicate beyond 150 mg L-1 did not result in further improvement. The decline in chlorophyll under drought stress is associated with chlorophyll degradation, chloroplast damage and oxidative stress, whereas potassium silicate-maintained chlorophyll integrity and photosynthetic activity by improving membrane stability and antioxidant defence (Gupta et al., 2020; Zarif et al., 2025; Goyal et al., 2025; Liang et al., 2007). Similar beneficial effects of silicon on chlorophyll retention under drought stress have been reported in rose by Al-Yasi et al., (2020); Adamipour et al., (2020); Farahani et al., (2021); Aalam et al., (2024); Shi et al., (2019); Hassan et al., (2017) and Soundararajan et al., (2017).

    Fig 2: Effect of potassium silicate spray on chlorophyll pigment of Rosa damascena under drought (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


           
    Membrane stability index (MSI) declined significantly with increasing drought stress, decreasing from 70.50% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 59.86% at 75% FC and 50.67% at 50% FC (Fig 3A). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved MSI under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the highest values of 72.90% and 62.40% under 75% and 50% FC, respectively. The reduction in MSI under drought stress is associated with oxidative damage and membrane lipid peroxidation, whereas potassium silicate enhanced membrane integrity and reduced oxidative stress, thereby improving drought tolerance. Similar findings have been reported in rose by Zarif et al., (2025) and Farahani et al., (2020).

    Fig 3: Effect of potassium silicate spray on (A) membrane stability index (%) and (B) chlorophyll stability index (%) of Rosa damascena under drought stress (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


           
    Chlorophyll stability index (CSI) decreased significantly with increasing drought stress, declining from 82.30% under 100% field capacity (FC) to 75.40% under severe drought (50% FC) (Fig 3B). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly improved CSI under all irrigation levels, with 150 mg L-1 producing the highest values. Under severe drought, CSI increased from 75.40% in untreated plants to 82.92% following potassium silicate application. The improvement in CSI suggests that potassium silicate enhanced chlorophyll stability by protecting chloroplast membranes and reducing drought-induced oxidative damage (Liang et al., 2007; Farooq et al., 2009; Zhu and Gong, 2014; Anjum et al., 2017; Soundararajan et al., 2017; Zarif et al., 2025).
     
    Changes in the drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena
     
    Epicuticular wax content increased progressively with increasing drought severity and potassium silicate application (Fig 4A). Under well-watered conditions (100% FC), untreated plants recorded 46.27 µg cm-2 wax content, which increased to 52.34 µg cm-2 under moderate drought stress (75% FC) and further to 59.60 µg cm-2 under severe drought stress (50% FC). The increase in epicuticular wax content under moisture stress indicates an adaptive protective response that helps reduce water loss and maintain plant water status under drought conditions. Enhanced wax deposition on the leaf surface may contribute to reducing cuticular water loss and protecting tissues from excessive dehydration (Wissemann et al., 2007). Drought-induced increases in wax accumulation have been associated with activation of cuticle-related metabolic pathways and enhanced biosynthesis of long-chain hydrocarbons that improve leaf resistance to water loss (Buschhaus et al., 2007). Foliar application of potassium silicates further enhanced wax accumulation under all irrigation regimes. Under 100% FC, wax content increased from 46.27 µg cm-2 in untreated plants to 54.80 µg cm-2 with 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate. Under moderate drought stress (75% FC), wax content increased from 52.34 µg cm-2 to 60.97 µg cm-2, while under severe drought stress (50% FC), wax deposition increased from 59.60 µg cm-2  to 68.28 µg cm-2  following application of 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate. Among all treatments, the highest epicuticular wax deposition was recorded under severe drought stress combined with 200 mg L-1 potassium silicate application. Similar increases in epicuticular wax accumulation under water-deficit conditions have been reported in rose and other ornamental crops (Simoes et al., 2020). These findings suggest that potassium silicate promotes epicuticular wax deposition, which may contribute to drought adaptation.
           
    Total phenol content increased with increasing drought stress, rising from 1225.40 µg GAE g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 1368.20 µg GAE g-1 FW at 75% FC and 1425.60 µg GAE g-1 FW at 50% FC (Fig 4B). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly reduced phenol accumulation under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the lowest values. Under 75% FC, phenol content decreased from 1368.20 to 1186.20 µg GAE g-1 FW, while under 50% FC it declined from 1425.60 to 1248.30 µg GAE g-1 FW. However, phenol content increased slightly at 200 mg L-1 compared with 150 mg L-1. The increased phenol accumulation under drought reflects activation of antioxidant defence against oxidative stress, whereas potassium silicate reduced phenol synthesis by alleviating stress and improving physiological stability (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013; Sapre and vakharia, 2016; Kim et al., 2017). Similar responses have been reported in Rosa damascena by Caser et al., (2019) and Hessini et al., (2022).
           
    Proline content increased significantly with increasing drought stress, rising from 0.86 µmol g-1 FW at 100% field capacity (FC) to 1.52 µmol g-1 FW at 75% FC and 2.38 µmol g-1 FW at 50% FC (Fig 4C). Foliar application of potassium silicate significantly reduced proline accumulation under all irrigation regimes, with 150 mg L-1 recording the lowest values. Under 75% FC, proline content decreased from 1.52 to 1.17 µmol g-1 FW, while under 50% FC it declined from 2.38 to 1.78 µmol g-1 FW. The increased proline accumulation under drought stress reflects osmotic adjustment and protection against dehydration, whereas potassium silicate alleviated osmotic stress by improving plant water status and membrane integrity (Farooq et al., 2009; Yokota et al., 2002; Liang et al., 2007). Similar reductions in proline accumulation following silicon application have been reported by Gunes et al., (2008) and Kim et al., (2017), indicating improved physiological stability and drought tolerance.

    Fig 4: Influence of drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena under drought stress (50%, 75% and 100% FC).


     
    Correlation analysis of physiological and drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena
     
    Correlation analysis showed significant relationships among the physiological and drought-responsive traits of Rosa damascena under drought stress and potassium silicate application (Fig 5). Relative water content (RWC) was positively correlated with chlorophyll-a (r = 0.91), chlorophyll-b (r = 0.91), total chlorophyll (r = 0.91), membrane stability index (MSI; r = 0.97) and chlorophyll stability index (CSI; r = 0.89). Chlorophyll pigments were also strongly correlated with each other (r = 1.00) and positively associated with MSI and CSI, indicating improved photosynthetic efficiency and membrane stability (Farooq et al., 2009; Al-Yasi  et al. (2020); Liang et al., 2007; Soundararajan et al., 2017; Hassan et al., 2017; Tamilselvan et al., 2024). In contrast, proline and total phenol contents were negatively correlated with the physiological traits, while epicuticular wax was positively correlated with proline (r = 0.74). These relationships indicate that potassium silicate maintained physiological performance while reducing drought-induced biochemical stress, thereby improving drought tolerance in Rosa damascena (Farooq et al., 2009; Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013; Buschhaus et al., 2007; Wissemann et al., 2007).

    Fig 5: Correlation analysis of potassium silicate spray and trait variables in damask rose under drought conditions.

    CONCLUSION

    Foliar application of potassium silicate mitigated adverse effects by improving physiological performance and reducing drought-induced stress. Among the concentrations, 150 mg L-1 potassium silicate was the most effective in enhancing water status, chlorophyll retention, membrane integrity and overall drought tolerance, particularly under 75% and 50% field capacity. Therefore, foliar application of potassium silicate at 150 mg L-1 can be recommended as an effective strategy to improve drought resilience and maintain the early physiological and biochemical responses of Rosa damascena under limited water availability.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect loss resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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