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Full Research Article

Manganese Sulphate Application Manifests Energy Efficient and Improved Wheat Production at Farmers’ Field in Different Agro-climatic Zones of Punjab

M
Manpreet Jaidka1,*
P
Pawitar Singh2
S
Satwinderjit Kaur3
S
Seema Sharma4
N
Navneet Jaryal5
1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Moga-142 002, Punjab, India.
2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Faridkot-151 203, Punjab, India.
3Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Gurdaspur-143 521, Punjab, India.
4Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Pathankot-143 530, Punjab, India.
5Depatment of Soil Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur-177 044, Himachal Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: The present investigation was carried out by conducting frontline demonstration on foliar spray of manganese sulphate to assess the energy dynamics and productivity analysis of wheat while addressing the manganese deficiency in four districts of Punjab viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot during 2024-25.Ten demonstrations in each district were planned after conducting a baseline survey of fifteen farmers in respective district.

Methods: Demonstrations consisted of four sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% in 250 litres water per ha (1st spray before 2-3 days before first irrigation and subsequent three sprays at weekly interval) and were maintained parallel to farmers’ practice.

Result: The results showed significantly higher number of effective tillers, 1000-grain weight and grain yield of wheat as compared to farmers’ plot (FPP). Economic analysis also revealed significant increase in benefit cost ratioin demonstration plot than FPP by 3.61% which clearly exhibits the economic feasibility of managing the manganese deficiency as per the recommendations of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Energy Budgeting depicted an increase in energy output, net energy and energy ratio by 2.77, 3.17 and 0.83%, respectively in comparison to FPP which in turn shows energy efficient wheat production system even managing the manganese deficiency as per recommendation.

INTRODUCTION

Food production is affected by several biotic and abiotic stresses (Rana et al., 2024) such as moisture-stress (Ahmad et al., 2022), non-judicious fertilizer application and improper production technology (Satorre and Slafer, 2024) leading to remarkable decrease in grain yield in wheat (Singhal et al., 2023; Mondal et al., 2023). In high cropping intensity, nutrient management plays pivotal role because Indian soils have poor status of nutrients like nitrogen, zinc, manganese and copper (Yadav et al., 2026). Wheat crop mainly faces frequent appearance of manganese deficiency at vegetative as well as reproductive stage affecting grain yield. Manganese plays pivotal role in plant growth and development (Narender and Malik, 2018), plant metabolism (Alexander et al., 2024) while regulating the redox potential (Millaleo et al., 2010). Although other micronutrients along with manganese is enriched in soil from organic sources (Biswas and Das, 2024) such as biochar (Ramamoorthy et al., 2024) but foliar spray of manganese significantly enhanced the number of tillers per plant, TGW and grain yield of wheat in two-year experiment (Dhaliwal et al., 2023). Manganese deficiency may lead to crop failure due to decreased concentration in plant parts resulting in wider gap in actual and potential yield (Meena et al., 2008) and also decreases photosynthesis efficiency, pollen fertility, dry matter production during grain filling period (Rashed et al., 2019). In Punjab, despite of usage of wider variety of products or fertilizers to subside the deficiency level, a difference between the potential yield and actual yield level is reported at farmers’ field (Jaidka and Brar, 2024), which necessitates revival in the farmer technical competency (Jaidka et al., 2024). Field demonstrations act as a promising tool for evaluating technology to increase the crop production (Singh and Tetarwal, 2022; Ali et al., 2023; Jaidka et al., 2025), render avenues to the experts to exhibit the beneficial effects of a particular technology (Teggeli et al., 2015). The prime objective of demonstrations is to increase visibility of the new or revived technologies for further dissemination (Singh et al., 2024). Keeping in view the economic importance of manganese deficiency in wheat, field demonstrations of foliar application of manganese sulphate were conducted during 2024-25 in four districts of Punjab viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot with an objective to
- Study the effect of manganese application on the productivity of wheat.
- Study the energy dynamics of wheat cultivation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study includes descriptive analysis of results of the field demonstrations of foliar application of manganese sulphate in wheat crop conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) during Rabi 2024-25 in the four districts of Punjab state viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot (Fig 1). The performance of the demonstrations was studied in terms of the productivity and economic viability relative to the farmers’ practices. Before laying down the demonstrations, the baseline survey was conducted by KVKs in respective district to have an idea about knowledge level of farmers regarding manganese deficiency, usage of manganese sulphate, changes in yield level as per farmers, dose of manganese sulphate used by the farmers etc. The baseline survey was conducted by using pre-decided questionnaire to collect information such as farmer qualification, operational land holding, whether they know deficiency symptoms of manganese, whether they use manganese sulphate, dose of manganese sulphate used, yield level obtained etc.

Fig 1: Geographical locations of demonstrations conducted in four districts of Punjab.


 
Baseline Survey
       
In the baseline survey (Fig 2), it was observed that out of 60 participants, only 23.30% farmers (14 farmers) use manganese sulphate to suffice the deficiency while remaining 46 farmers (76.70%) use other customized sources of manganese. Out of 14 farmers, 85.71% farmers use manganese sulphate @ 2.5 kg per ha and 14.29% farmers use 5 kg per ha which depicts that usage level is higher than the recommendation i.e., 2.5 kg per ha (500 litre water). Furthermore, survey data revealed that 78.57 percent farmers (11) practice only one spray while 21.43% (3) go for 2 sprays of manganese sulphate. The data clearly demonstrates that number of sprays is much lesser than recommended practice i.e., 4 foliar sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% (1 spray before first irrigation and three sprays after first irrigation at weekly interval).

Fig 2: Results of baseline survey regarding usage of manganese sulphate.


       
Out of 14 farmers, 3 farmers (21.43%) responded that usage of manganese increases grain yield of wheat crop while 11 farmers (78.7%) reported denied the increasing effect on the grain yield which can be due to less usage of manganese sulphate by the farmers, as they go for only one spray as compared to four sprays as per the recommendation. Keeping in view the less usage of manganese sulphate than other formulations, less number of sprays and less usage in terms of total quantity, the study included one objective to verify the results of the survey in terms of grain yield of wheat crop obtained in demonstration and check plots.
 
Details of demonstration and farmers’ production practice (FPP)
 
At each demonstration, a check plot was maintained parallel to the demonstration plot where farmer practices were followed. The need based visits to the field demonstrations were organized by the KVK scientists to monitor the crop health, treatment imposition, interculture operations, collection of data. The crop data pertaining to the yield attributes such as tillers per plant, grains per ear, 1000-grain weight, grain yield and economics were recorded for demonstration as well as farmers’ practice. The economic viability was evaluated by computing benefit cost ratio. While conducting demonstrations, farmers were guided for improved production technologies (Table 1) through training camps, farm literature and personal contact.

Table 1: Details of farmers’ practices (FPP) and intervention in demonstration plot.


 
Energy budgeting
 
The primary data pertaining to different input usage and field operations were further derived to calculate various energy indices which were represented as megajoule (MJ). Energy coefficients/equivalents (Table 2) are standard conversion factors used for computing the energy indices through equations (Table 3).

Table 2: Energy equivalents and emission factors used for various inputs.



Table 3: Equations used for the calculation of energy indices in wheat production.


 
Statistical analysis
 
The 10 locations of the demonstrations in each district were taken as replications and the statistical analysis was performed in the randomized complete block design to compare demonstration and check plots.The locations were considered as replications to ensure an adequate error degree of freedom (>10), as the study comprised only two treatments, i.e., the demonstration and the farmers’ practice. The statistical analysis was performed using online OPSTAT software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Grain yield and yield attributes
 
Data revealed that demonstration plots registered significantly higher number of effective tillers as compared to farmers’ practice (FPP) in all the districts (Table 4). For instance, in Gurdaspur, the demonstration plot had 4.17% higher number of effective tillers relative to check plot. Highest level of enhancement was recorded in Pathankot district i.e. 5.21%, with minimum increase in Moga district i.e. 2.78%. The increase in number of effective tillers can be attributed to effective management of manganese deficiency in wheat crop by recommended practice i.e., 4 foliar sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5 %especially at tillering and jointing stage which helped the crop plants to produce more number of tillers, which otherwise leads to mortality due to manganese deficiency. Shahrajabian et al. (2020) in their study in Isfahan, Iran, reported 8.83% higher number of fertile spikes with application of manganese sulphate @ 60 kg/ha. Furthermore, in all the districts, the demonstration plot showed significant increase in 1000-grain weight relative to FPP. In Faridkot district, recommended management of manganese deficiency in wheat reported 6.96% higher 1000-grain weight (43.80 g) than check plot (42.40 g). The increase in 1000-grain weight in demonstration plot can be attributed to highly efficient translocation of assimilates from source to sink during grain filling period as flag leaf acts as major contributor of assimilates (Song et al., 2025). Similarly, demonstration plots registered increase in grain yield of wheat in all the districts relative to farmers’ practice ranging from 1.44 to 2.86 per cent. The increase in grain yield by manganese sulphate application can be associated with higher number of effective tillers, number of grains per ear (Mohsin et al., 2009) and 1000-grain weight which clearly demonstrates that improved nutritional conditions of the crop prove propitious in realization of better economic yield (Temiz et al., 2009). Manganese sulphate application resulted in enhancement in wheat grain yield by 9.15% (Shahrajabian et al., 2020) and 19.65% (Dhaliwal et al., 2023). Economic analysis also revealed increase in benefit cost ratio in demonstration plots than FPP in all the districts. For instance, in Faridkot district, foliar spray of manganese sulphate resulted in 3.83% higher B:C (2.71) than FPP (2.61). Increase in B:C can be attributed to marginal gain in net returns over the enhanced cost of cultivation due to usage of manganese sulphate which further exhibits the economic feasibility of managing the manganese deficiency as per the recommendation. The results showing better B:C are in accordance with Dhaliwal et al. (2023) where one foliar spray of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% 2 days before first irrigation followed by two sprays at weekly intervals resulted in 15.84% higher B:C than control.

Table 4: Grain yield, yield attributes and energy output of wheat in demonstration and check plots in 4 districts of Punjab.


 
Energy budgeting
 
Data analysis revealed significantly higher energy output in demonstration plots relative to FPP in all the districts (Table 4). For instance, in Moga district, foliar spray of manganese sulphate registered 2.86% higher energy output (66150 MJ/ha) than check (64313 MJ/ha). Similarly, in Gurdaspur district, demonstration plots (79571.24 MJ/ha) registered 1.65% higher energy output than FPP (78722.54 MJ/ha). Energy output of any production system is directly proportional to productivity level or yield of economic product (Kumar et al., 2025). High energy output in demonstration plots can be related to realization of high grain yield of wheat than in FPP. Furthermore, variation in response of wheat crop to manganese sulphate in terms of increase in energy output among the districts is matter of future thrust which needs to be evaluated. In Pathankot district, the increase in energy output by 4.46% further creates avenues to have soil test based nutrient uptake and efficiency studies which can more clearly describe the role of soil manganese availability on the performance of wheat crop even when same quantity of nutrient was applied artificially. A non-significant difference between demonstration plots and FPP was observed in terms of input energy in all the districts (Table 5). Although usage of manganese sulphate resulted in enhanced input energy requirement than FPP but it could not reach level of significance. Usage of manganese sulphate recorded significant increase in net energy in all the districts. For example, in Pathankot district, demonstration plot (49063.36 MJ/ha) reported 5.15% higher net energy than FPP (46659.71 MJ/ha). The increase in input energy in demonstration plots relative to FPP can be attributed to increased usage of water, manganese sulphate and farm labour for foliar spray as per recommendation. The input energy was at par with FPP because farmers also use different type of formulations to alleviate the manganese deficiency, which in turn, increase the input energy requirement. There lies a close relationship between net energy, energy output and energy input (Nandan et al., 2021). The results pertaining to net energy return show better efficacy of manganese sulphate application to utilize per unit of invested energy. Energy ratio indicates ability of any production system to convert input energy to output energy under given set of conditions (Sahu et al., 2024). In all the districts, data depicted higher energy ratio in demonstration plots than FPP. An increase in energy ratio was observed but it was statistically at par in all the districts as well as overall scenarios. Low energy ratio in farmers’ practice reveals realization of less grain yield which in turn can be linked to poor efficiency of managerial aspects followed at farmer level to subside the manganese deficiency. On the contrary, better energy ratio in demonstration plot designates maintenance of proper nutrient balance due to recurrent application of manganese sulphate as per the recommendation. Specific energy indicates relative usage of input energy to produce per unit of economic product. More value of specific energy means high requirement of input energy and vice-versa. In all the districts except Pathankot, demonstration plot registered lesser specific energy than FPP. For example, in Faridkot district, demonstration plot (3.78 MJ/kg) recorded 0.79% lesser specific energy than FPP (3.81 MJ/kg). 

Table 5: Energy budgeting of wheat crop in demonstration and check plots in 4 districts of Punjab.

CONCLUSION

Foliar application of manganese sulphate as recommended by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana registered significantly higher grain yield and yield attributes of wheat in all the four districts of Punjab. The increase in grain yield establishes the outcomes of the baseline survey where about 21.43 % farmers stated that manganese sulphate application enhances grain yield. Results also demonstrated economic viability of the recommended practice relative to the farmers’ practice irrespective of enhancement in various expenses owing to repeated foliar sprays of manganese sulphate in comparison to FPP. High energy output, net energy, energy ratio while keeping less specific energy relative to farmers’ practice clearly demonstrates energy efficient wheat production system even managing the manganese deficiency as per recommendation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors acknowledge the ICAR-Agriculture Technology Application Research Institute, Zone-I, PAU Campus, Ludhiana and Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for providing opportunity and funds to conduct the field demonstrations.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

Authors hereby declare zero conflict of interest.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Manganese Sulphate Application Manifests Energy Efficient and Improved Wheat Production at Farmers’ Field in Different Agro-climatic Zones of Punjab

    M
    Manpreet Jaidka1,*
    P
    Pawitar Singh2
    S
    Satwinderjit Kaur3
    S
    Seema Sharma4
    N
    Navneet Jaryal5
    1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Moga-142 002, Punjab, India.
    2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Faridkot-151 203, Punjab, India.
    3Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Gurdaspur-143 521, Punjab, India.
    4Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Pathankot-143 530, Punjab, India.
    5Depatment of Soil Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur-177 044, Himachal Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: The present investigation was carried out by conducting frontline demonstration on foliar spray of manganese sulphate to assess the energy dynamics and productivity analysis of wheat while addressing the manganese deficiency in four districts of Punjab viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot during 2024-25.Ten demonstrations in each district were planned after conducting a baseline survey of fifteen farmers in respective district.

    Methods: Demonstrations consisted of four sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% in 250 litres water per ha (1st spray before 2-3 days before first irrigation and subsequent three sprays at weekly interval) and were maintained parallel to farmers’ practice.

    Result: The results showed significantly higher number of effective tillers, 1000-grain weight and grain yield of wheat as compared to farmers’ plot (FPP). Economic analysis also revealed significant increase in benefit cost ratioin demonstration plot than FPP by 3.61% which clearly exhibits the economic feasibility of managing the manganese deficiency as per the recommendations of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Energy Budgeting depicted an increase in energy output, net energy and energy ratio by 2.77, 3.17 and 0.83%, respectively in comparison to FPP which in turn shows energy efficient wheat production system even managing the manganese deficiency as per recommendation.

    INTRODUCTION

    Food production is affected by several biotic and abiotic stresses (Rana et al., 2024) such as moisture-stress (Ahmad et al., 2022), non-judicious fertilizer application and improper production technology (Satorre and Slafer, 2024) leading to remarkable decrease in grain yield in wheat (Singhal et al., 2023; Mondal et al., 2023). In high cropping intensity, nutrient management plays pivotal role because Indian soils have poor status of nutrients like nitrogen, zinc, manganese and copper (Yadav et al., 2026). Wheat crop mainly faces frequent appearance of manganese deficiency at vegetative as well as reproductive stage affecting grain yield. Manganese plays pivotal role in plant growth and development (Narender and Malik, 2018), plant metabolism (Alexander et al., 2024) while regulating the redox potential (Millaleo et al., 2010). Although other micronutrients along with manganese is enriched in soil from organic sources (Biswas and Das, 2024) such as biochar (Ramamoorthy et al., 2024) but foliar spray of manganese significantly enhanced the number of tillers per plant, TGW and grain yield of wheat in two-year experiment (Dhaliwal et al., 2023). Manganese deficiency may lead to crop failure due to decreased concentration in plant parts resulting in wider gap in actual and potential yield (Meena et al., 2008) and also decreases photosynthesis efficiency, pollen fertility, dry matter production during grain filling period (Rashed et al., 2019). In Punjab, despite of usage of wider variety of products or fertilizers to subside the deficiency level, a difference between the potential yield and actual yield level is reported at farmers’ field (Jaidka and Brar, 2024), which necessitates revival in the farmer technical competency (Jaidka et al., 2024). Field demonstrations act as a promising tool for evaluating technology to increase the crop production (Singh and Tetarwal, 2022; Ali et al., 2023; Jaidka et al., 2025), render avenues to the experts to exhibit the beneficial effects of a particular technology (Teggeli et al., 2015). The prime objective of demonstrations is to increase visibility of the new or revived technologies for further dissemination (Singh et al., 2024). Keeping in view the economic importance of manganese deficiency in wheat, field demonstrations of foliar application of manganese sulphate were conducted during 2024-25 in four districts of Punjab viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot with an objective to
    - Study the effect of manganese application on the productivity of wheat.
    - Study the energy dynamics of wheat cultivation.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The present study includes descriptive analysis of results of the field demonstrations of foliar application of manganese sulphate in wheat crop conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) during Rabi 2024-25 in the four districts of Punjab state viz., Faridkot, Gurdaspur, Moga and Pathankot (Fig 1). The performance of the demonstrations was studied in terms of the productivity and economic viability relative to the farmers’ practices. Before laying down the demonstrations, the baseline survey was conducted by KVKs in respective district to have an idea about knowledge level of farmers regarding manganese deficiency, usage of manganese sulphate, changes in yield level as per farmers, dose of manganese sulphate used by the farmers etc. The baseline survey was conducted by using pre-decided questionnaire to collect information such as farmer qualification, operational land holding, whether they know deficiency symptoms of manganese, whether they use manganese sulphate, dose of manganese sulphate used, yield level obtained etc.

    Fig 1: Geographical locations of demonstrations conducted in four districts of Punjab.


     
    Baseline Survey
           
    In the baseline survey (Fig 2), it was observed that out of 60 participants, only 23.30% farmers (14 farmers) use manganese sulphate to suffice the deficiency while remaining 46 farmers (76.70%) use other customized sources of manganese. Out of 14 farmers, 85.71% farmers use manganese sulphate @ 2.5 kg per ha and 14.29% farmers use 5 kg per ha which depicts that usage level is higher than the recommendation i.e., 2.5 kg per ha (500 litre water). Furthermore, survey data revealed that 78.57 percent farmers (11) practice only one spray while 21.43% (3) go for 2 sprays of manganese sulphate. The data clearly demonstrates that number of sprays is much lesser than recommended practice i.e., 4 foliar sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% (1 spray before first irrigation and three sprays after first irrigation at weekly interval).

    Fig 2: Results of baseline survey regarding usage of manganese sulphate.


           
    Out of 14 farmers, 3 farmers (21.43%) responded that usage of manganese increases grain yield of wheat crop while 11 farmers (78.7%) reported denied the increasing effect on the grain yield which can be due to less usage of manganese sulphate by the farmers, as they go for only one spray as compared to four sprays as per the recommendation. Keeping in view the less usage of manganese sulphate than other formulations, less number of sprays and less usage in terms of total quantity, the study included one objective to verify the results of the survey in terms of grain yield of wheat crop obtained in demonstration and check plots.
     
    Details of demonstration and farmers’ production practice (FPP)
     
    At each demonstration, a check plot was maintained parallel to the demonstration plot where farmer practices were followed. The need based visits to the field demonstrations were organized by the KVK scientists to monitor the crop health, treatment imposition, interculture operations, collection of data. The crop data pertaining to the yield attributes such as tillers per plant, grains per ear, 1000-grain weight, grain yield and economics were recorded for demonstration as well as farmers’ practice. The economic viability was evaluated by computing benefit cost ratio. While conducting demonstrations, farmers were guided for improved production technologies (Table 1) through training camps, farm literature and personal contact.

    Table 1: Details of farmers’ practices (FPP) and intervention in demonstration plot.


     
    Energy budgeting
     
    The primary data pertaining to different input usage and field operations were further derived to calculate various energy indices which were represented as megajoule (MJ). Energy coefficients/equivalents (Table 2) are standard conversion factors used for computing the energy indices through equations (Table 3).

    Table 2: Energy equivalents and emission factors used for various inputs.



    Table 3: Equations used for the calculation of energy indices in wheat production.


     
    Statistical analysis
     
    The 10 locations of the demonstrations in each district were taken as replications and the statistical analysis was performed in the randomized complete block design to compare demonstration and check plots.The locations were considered as replications to ensure an adequate error degree of freedom (>10), as the study comprised only two treatments, i.e., the demonstration and the farmers’ practice. The statistical analysis was performed using online OPSTAT software.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Grain yield and yield attributes
     
    Data revealed that demonstration plots registered significantly higher number of effective tillers as compared to farmers’ practice (FPP) in all the districts (Table 4). For instance, in Gurdaspur, the demonstration plot had 4.17% higher number of effective tillers relative to check plot. Highest level of enhancement was recorded in Pathankot district i.e. 5.21%, with minimum increase in Moga district i.e. 2.78%. The increase in number of effective tillers can be attributed to effective management of manganese deficiency in wheat crop by recommended practice i.e., 4 foliar sprays of manganese sulphate @ 0.5 %especially at tillering and jointing stage which helped the crop plants to produce more number of tillers, which otherwise leads to mortality due to manganese deficiency. Shahrajabian et al. (2020) in their study in Isfahan, Iran, reported 8.83% higher number of fertile spikes with application of manganese sulphate @ 60 kg/ha. Furthermore, in all the districts, the demonstration plot showed significant increase in 1000-grain weight relative to FPP. In Faridkot district, recommended management of manganese deficiency in wheat reported 6.96% higher 1000-grain weight (43.80 g) than check plot (42.40 g). The increase in 1000-grain weight in demonstration plot can be attributed to highly efficient translocation of assimilates from source to sink during grain filling period as flag leaf acts as major contributor of assimilates (Song et al., 2025). Similarly, demonstration plots registered increase in grain yield of wheat in all the districts relative to farmers’ practice ranging from 1.44 to 2.86 per cent. The increase in grain yield by manganese sulphate application can be associated with higher number of effective tillers, number of grains per ear (Mohsin et al., 2009) and 1000-grain weight which clearly demonstrates that improved nutritional conditions of the crop prove propitious in realization of better economic yield (Temiz et al., 2009). Manganese sulphate application resulted in enhancement in wheat grain yield by 9.15% (Shahrajabian et al., 2020) and 19.65% (Dhaliwal et al., 2023). Economic analysis also revealed increase in benefit cost ratio in demonstration plots than FPP in all the districts. For instance, in Faridkot district, foliar spray of manganese sulphate resulted in 3.83% higher B:C (2.71) than FPP (2.61). Increase in B:C can be attributed to marginal gain in net returns over the enhanced cost of cultivation due to usage of manganese sulphate which further exhibits the economic feasibility of managing the manganese deficiency as per the recommendation. The results showing better B:C are in accordance with Dhaliwal et al. (2023) where one foliar spray of manganese sulphate @ 0.5% 2 days before first irrigation followed by two sprays at weekly intervals resulted in 15.84% higher B:C than control.

    Table 4: Grain yield, yield attributes and energy output of wheat in demonstration and check plots in 4 districts of Punjab.


     
    Energy budgeting
     
    Data analysis revealed significantly higher energy output in demonstration plots relative to FPP in all the districts (Table 4). For instance, in Moga district, foliar spray of manganese sulphate registered 2.86% higher energy output (66150 MJ/ha) than check (64313 MJ/ha). Similarly, in Gurdaspur district, demonstration plots (79571.24 MJ/ha) registered 1.65% higher energy output than FPP (78722.54 MJ/ha). Energy output of any production system is directly proportional to productivity level or yield of economic product (Kumar et al., 2025). High energy output in demonstration plots can be related to realization of high grain yield of wheat than in FPP. Furthermore, variation in response of wheat crop to manganese sulphate in terms of increase in energy output among the districts is matter of future thrust which needs to be evaluated. In Pathankot district, the increase in energy output by 4.46% further creates avenues to have soil test based nutrient uptake and efficiency studies which can more clearly describe the role of soil manganese availability on the performance of wheat crop even when same quantity of nutrient was applied artificially. A non-significant difference between demonstration plots and FPP was observed in terms of input energy in all the districts (Table 5). Although usage of manganese sulphate resulted in enhanced input energy requirement than FPP but it could not reach level of significance. Usage of manganese sulphate recorded significant increase in net energy in all the districts. For example, in Pathankot district, demonstration plot (49063.36 MJ/ha) reported 5.15% higher net energy than FPP (46659.71 MJ/ha). The increase in input energy in demonstration plots relative to FPP can be attributed to increased usage of water, manganese sulphate and farm labour for foliar spray as per recommendation. The input energy was at par with FPP because farmers also use different type of formulations to alleviate the manganese deficiency, which in turn, increase the input energy requirement. There lies a close relationship between net energy, energy output and energy input (Nandan et al., 2021). The results pertaining to net energy return show better efficacy of manganese sulphate application to utilize per unit of invested energy. Energy ratio indicates ability of any production system to convert input energy to output energy under given set of conditions (Sahu et al., 2024). In all the districts, data depicted higher energy ratio in demonstration plots than FPP. An increase in energy ratio was observed but it was statistically at par in all the districts as well as overall scenarios. Low energy ratio in farmers’ practice reveals realization of less grain yield which in turn can be linked to poor efficiency of managerial aspects followed at farmer level to subside the manganese deficiency. On the contrary, better energy ratio in demonstration plot designates maintenance of proper nutrient balance due to recurrent application of manganese sulphate as per the recommendation. Specific energy indicates relative usage of input energy to produce per unit of economic product. More value of specific energy means high requirement of input energy and vice-versa. In all the districts except Pathankot, demonstration plot registered lesser specific energy than FPP. For example, in Faridkot district, demonstration plot (3.78 MJ/kg) recorded 0.79% lesser specific energy than FPP (3.81 MJ/kg). 

    Table 5: Energy budgeting of wheat crop in demonstration and check plots in 4 districts of Punjab.

    CONCLUSION

    Foliar application of manganese sulphate as recommended by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana registered significantly higher grain yield and yield attributes of wheat in all the four districts of Punjab. The increase in grain yield establishes the outcomes of the baseline survey where about 21.43 % farmers stated that manganese sulphate application enhances grain yield. Results also demonstrated economic viability of the recommended practice relative to the farmers’ practice irrespective of enhancement in various expenses owing to repeated foliar sprays of manganese sulphate in comparison to FPP. High energy output, net energy, energy ratio while keeping less specific energy relative to farmers’ practice clearly demonstrates energy efficient wheat production system even managing the manganese deficiency as per recommendation.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    Authors acknowledge the ICAR-Agriculture Technology Application Research Institute, Zone-I, PAU Campus, Ludhiana and Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for providing opportunity and funds to conduct the field demonstrations.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    Authors hereby declare zero conflict of interest.

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