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Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Extreme Weather Adaptations- Agronomic Strategies for Resilient Crop Systems: A Review

C
Chebrolu Sravani1,*
0009-0002-6736-5170
M
Murugesan Mohana Keerthi1
B
Boda Somraj2
G
Guda Bhargavi1
S
Shende Amit Basveshwar1
K
K. Damodar1
1Department of Agronomy, SR University, Warangal-506 371, Telangana, India.
2Department of Horticulture, SR University, Warangal-506 371, Telangana, India.

ABSTRACT

The rising rate and severity of extreme events such as irregular climatic patterns are a great threat to the world agricultural productivity and food security. The review examines key agronomic measures that can be used to improve the resilience of the agricultural crop systems to these problems. Such resilience is necessary to the extent that there is a stable food supply to a rising world population. This discussion summarizes the existing studies to outline successful strategies to cope with drought, floods, heatwave and cold waves. Some of the agronomic strategies that have been referred to are the adoption of water efficient irrigation methods, the choice and breeding of varieties of crops that are stress tolerant, adoption of soil health management practices, diversification of cropping systems through inter-cropping and agroforestry, adoption of precision agricultural technologies and data analytics. A combination of these strategies depending on the regional and climatic conditions is required to create sound and sustainable agricultural systems that will be able to overcome the rising challenges of extreme weather. The next round of research needs to be on how the combined effects of the extreme events are compounded and the socio-economic factors that affect the adoption of these resilience practices.

INTRODUCTION

Extreme weather conditions comprising drought, flood, heatwave, cold spells and storms are becoming a common occurrence in the world and are starting to take its toll on agricultural crop systems. These events are characterized by severe deviations of the usual weather conditions and they are likely to exceed the historical variation in its scale, frequency and duration (Vogel et al., 2019). The scientific community demonstrates that the rise of the global temperatures and the increase of extreme weather events are definitely correlated. The climate change is not a gradual increase in the average temperatures, but it is defined by the rise in the volatility of the weather and dispersion of the events that can severely disrupt the established agricultural operations (Bobea et al., 2020). This shift from predictable weather in the respect of seasonal changes to more unpredictable and extreme weather demand a radical reassessment of the traditional approach to farming activities.The number of researches explaining the subtle impact of these extreme weather conditions is the statement of the omnipresence and multi-dimensionality of the risk to agriculture (Farah et al., 2025). The consequences are wide spread; decrease in the yields of crops and their low quality, complete failure of crops to prolonged destruction of agricultural lands. This vulnerability demands a complex and integrated solution of resilience to improve the crop systems (Li et al., 2025) (Fig 1). In response to such growing demands, the concept of resilient crop systems has driven the need to initiate crop systems that are resistant and resilient to extreme weather disturbances and also productive (Malhi et al., 2021). Agronomic strategies are the primary source of this resilience (Fig 2). This include different farm management practices that are supposed to improve the ability of the crops and the agricultural systems to endure adverse weather conditions.

Fig 1: Impact of climate change on agriculture.



Fig 2: Building climate resilience in agriculture.



Impacts of extreme weather conditions on agricultural crop systems

Drought

Drought refers to the situation when the availability of rainfall is low or absent and significantly reduces the supply of water to support agricultural productivity (Dos et al., 2022). Besides direct losses of production, droughts can also affect the downstream industries, such as food processors and reduce the demand of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and labour at the farm (Qiao et al., 2024). Plants exhibit certain physiological adaptations to conserve and store water under drought conditions. They include leaf rolling, in which the leaf becomes a ball to reduce the area exposed to the sun and stomatal closure, in which the loss of water to the surroundings through the transpiration process is limited, though at the expense of the plants not being able to photosynthesize (Wang et al., 2023). This may also lead to poor pollination particularly to specialty crops like maize, sorghum, rice, groundnut as they are highly sensitive at flowering stage (Yu et al., 2024). Droughts have long-term effects on the health of the soil, whereby the water holding capacity of the soil is declined and also alter the process of nutrient cycling. The impacts of the drought are not uniform across the agricultural sectors; the specific crops with higher water demands and returns per hectare are often more vulnerable to economic losses under the drought condition as compared to the field crops (Haghpanah et al., 2024). Rain-fed agriculture also makes the agricultural systems very susceptible to drought, as they have no access to the deeper water resources.The impact of droughts is localized and some areas are more severely affected by droughts compared to others proving the need to take location-specific measures (Ali et al., 2024).

Floods

Floods and extreme rainfall on the farm lands are a significant menace to the crop production largely due to the unavailability of oxygen at the root zone (Manghwar et al., 2024). when the  soil pores are saturated with water,  oxygen availability is reduced which is essential for the  respiration of the plant roots and the absorption of nutrients. This oxygen deficit can lead to the reduction in growth rate, wilting and subsequent death of the plants, with seedlings and young plants being particularly affected (Renziehausen et al., 2024). The occurrence of floods is determined by the duration and intensity of floods, the temperature of soil and atmosphere and it plays a significant role in determining the extent of loss of crops. Floods also cause a rise in root rot diseases and spread other water-borne diseases (Ngumbi et al., 2025). Furthermore, the flood water can cause huge soil erosion, in which the top soil and other important nutrients are swept away and hence reducing the future crop yield and its productivity. The eroded soil could also be moved to other sites, which block the drainage paths and conceal vegetation (Meliho et al., 2021).

Physically, floodwaters could destroy the agricultural infrastructure such as drainage system, buildings, storage and irrigation systems that are expensive to restore and impact farming activities (Rupngam et al., 2024). The long-term implications on soil health in the case of flooding include soil compaction which restricts the air space and water permeability and replacement of aerobic by anaerobic bacteria (Das et al., 2025). These changes can lead to the adverse impact on the soil structure, nutrient supply and the soil fertility that would affect the agricultural productivity in the future (Srivastava et al., 2023).

Heatwaves

The agricultural crops were subjected to excessive physiological pressure caused by the heat waves due to the long period extreme high temperatures leading to the reduction of photosynthesis and other forms of crop damage. There is a high probability of excess heat disrupting the essential processes of plants including photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration, ultimately lowering the overall growth and productivity (Mondal et al., 2023). This drought will lead to stunted plant growth and reduction in percentage of water content in the leaves which lead to the further deterioration of photosynthetic output (Rajasekharan et al., 2026). This too can affect the quality of the products in the harvest and has been recorded to produce shriveled grains and scalded fruits during the heat stress. Plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes and xanthophylls, which are vital in photosynthesis, may also be damaged in high temperatures at cellular levels (Hu et al., 2020). Heat can also induce the denaturation or destruction of proteins in the plant and the activity of enzymes and other metabolism (Bal et al., 2025). The heatwaves do not only affect crops, but also have a negative impact on livestock (Sajjanar et al., 2015). 

Cold spells

The cold spells are sudden and long spell of cold conditions that can have a direct impact on farm crops leads to frost damages, retarded growth and poor yields (Yu et al., 2025). The severity of frost damage is determined by the lowest temperature attained, the duration of a cold period, the stage of the plant development process and the presence of protective areas such as snow cover (Rooney et al., 2024). Frost also has the potential to destroy flower buds more than leaf buds and therefore it may prevent fruit production (Wagner et al., 2021). Due to the freeze-thaw condition, the plant can be heaved out of the soil exposing it to cold fatalities and drying up. Specially targeted crops such as Maize, soyabean, rice, sorghum are generally particularly vulnerable to cold damage especially at the germination, seedling stage and flowering stage. Deep frost can be employed in control of certain soil-borne pests and diseases because overwintering stages are frozen (Sahoo et al., 2022). There is also a possibility that freeze-thaw cycles will further improve the soil structure creating cracks and fissures to make it easier to be penetrated by water and roots (Jiang et al., 2024). 

Storms

Severe storms cause such immense damage to agricultural crop systems as thunderstorms, hurricanes and hailstorms through hail, high winds and the associated floods. The force of the flowing water in floods may also break or lodge the crops plants. The hailstorms will also cause much littering of the leaves that will reduce the photosynthetic ability of the plant and this will also impact degree of yield, or even death. The crops are also susceptible to hail damage, though the vulnerability of crops to hail damage is determined by the type of crop as well as the stage of its development with some crops like corn (tasseling) and cotton (at bud) being the most vulnerable to hail damage (Shannon et al., 2015). Storms can cause economic losses and these losses include damages to crop, rangeland and agricultural infrastructure. 

Agronomic strategies for enhancing crop resilience to drought 

Efficient irrigation techniques  

Efficient irrigation systems is the most significant factor in ensuring the agriculture activities in the areas of severe drought. More correct mode of water application is drip irrigation since it uses a system of pipes and emitters to deliver water to root zone of the plants (Guo et al., 2024). This method will escape evaporation and runoff losses leading to large water savings and water use efficiency (Wang et al., 2021). Sprinkler systems can also be implemented in place of flood irrigation but they should be properly designed and managed. The new sprinkler systems such as the low-pressure system and those better in uniformity of water distribution could save wastage in comparison to the old ones (Chauhdary et al., 2023). However, they can be affected by the wind and evaporation and in that regard close waiting and control is necessary. 

One of the biggest changes in water management is smart irrigation systems that can utilize sensors, weather information and data analytics to manage the utilization of water based on the actual needs of plants, as well as the prevailing weather and environmental parameters. Among them is one sensor known as soil moisture sensors that provide real-time information of the amount of water present in root zone to enable the farmers to irrigate at the most precise time and where the irrigation is needed (Vallejo et al., 2023). Precision irrigation is a fairly accepted tool in the active management of water in the dynamic climatic conditions, among other advanced technologies.

Selection of drought-tolerant crop varieties

The selection and cultivating of crops which are already resistant to the drought conditions is one of the fundamental ways to enhance resilience to drought. Numerous species and varieties of plants have evolved or been breed to be able to thrive on limited water. For example, various varieties of pearl millet (HHB 67) are developed which are widely cultivated in dry land areas (Murali et al., 2025). Other crop varieties of corn include the Anasazi Sweet and Daymon Morgan of Kentucky which is resistant to drier regions. Drought resistant grains include amaranth, barley (Ethiopian Hulless, Jet, Milan), quinoa and varieties of wheat, including Hard Red Spring, Kamut and White Sonoran.

It is crucial to consider the specific climate, the soils and other environmental conditions of the area while selecting the drought-resistant varieties of crops. One varietal performance could be different with variations in temperatures, humidity and soil structure. Ongoing breeding programs continue to develop improved varieties of most of the staple crops that are resistant to drought with a view of ensuring that they would be more resilient and productive under the circumstances of water shortage (Yadav et al., 2016).

Soil moisture conservation practices

Enhancing the natural ability of the soil to store and retain moisture is the fundamental way of drought resilience. There are many agronomic practices that may be undertaken to increase the soil water retention capacity. Mulching refers to the covering of the surface of the soil with organic or inorganic compounds such as straws or wood chips or plastic covers (Lopes et al., 2025). Mulch is a protective cover and it reduces the surface evaporation of soil, regulates soil temperatures and also suppresses weeds which aids in soil moisture preservation (Ramos et al., 2024).

The other practice that has helped in ameliorating the quality of soil and water storage is the concept of cover cropping whereby during the off-season, plants that are not cash crops are planted to protect and enrich the soil. The cover crops would improve the soil structure by improving the organic matter that would improve water holding capacity as well as enabling the water to penetrate the soil easily. They will also help to prevent soil erosion, weeds and even restore nitrogen to the atmosphere, rendering the soil fertility to cultivate other crops (Haruna et al., 2023).

With reduced tillage of soil, such as conservation tillage and no-till agriculture, the level of soil disturbance is lowered and the soil network of pores and structure stabilize to absorb and retain water. The practices will also help with minimal evaporation and soil erosion due to the crop residues present on the soil. The second relevant thing is that the organic matter in the soil is increased through application of compost or animal manure that would improve the soil structure and the capacity to hold the water since organic matter would serve as a sponge to absorb and hold the water (Munirathnam et al., 2026).

Agronomic strategies for managing excessive rainfall and flooding

Implementation of effective drainage systems

Proper drainage systems are necessary especially in the areas where rainfall and flooding are relatively common in order to prevent water-logging and consequently its adverse effects on crop production. The agricultural drainage systems must be made in such a way that it removes the additional water in the soil and at root zone to improve the aeration of the soil and to enhance the microclimate of the plant. These systems are of two types surface drainage and subsurface drainage. Surface drainage seeks to eliminate the excess supply of water on the surface of the land and this is through digging up pits and channels or graded surfaces that drain the fields. This holds particularly in such landscapes where the slope is not very sharp and can easily minimize ponding and waterlogging. However, subsurface drainage involves some form of pipes or tiles with holes that are drilled underground to regulate the water table and to recover the excess water within the root zone (Muhammad et al., 2011). The technique is applicable in the soils where water level is high or in soils that are not very permeable and soils where surface runoff alone is  insufficient (Manik et al., 2019). Vertical drainage systems can be embraced in locations with tight or deep soils where drills are done and permeable materials installed into the bank with an aim of promoting water flow.The flow and the capacity of the system to drain the surplus water may be obstructed by any debris or sedimentation. The benefits of effective drainage are improved soil aeration leading to greater penetration of roots and uptake of nutrients by the growing plants; greater accessibility to farming practices; longer growing periods due to faster soil warming and drying in the spring and reduced losses of crops to waterlogging. Another water management approach used in the fields is to ensure crops become more resilient to excess rainfall and floods (Elnashar et al., 2023).

Raised bed planting and other water management techniques

Planting in raised beds is an excellent agronomic practice in managing the excessive rainfalls as well as improving drainage where the soils have poor or high water table. Raised beds are simply areas where plants are planted above the ground level that surrounds  typically with frames made of wood, concrete, or other building materials. This height will provide the soil in the bed with a better drainage and additional space to roots of the plants grow above the saturated soil conditions. This will be due to the improved drainage thereby reducing the occurrence of water logging and root rot, which is a frequent phenomenon in the flood prone areas (Hassan et al., 2005). A better drainage and water retention shall also be achieved through the enhancement of soil structure i.e. by incorporating organic matter to the soil (compost or well-rotted manure) (Sayre et al., 2004). Raised bed planting is one of such water management strategy that render crop resilience in flood prone environment (Obia et al., 2018).

Utilization of flood-tolerant crop varieties

Another agronomic approach of managing heavy rainfalls and floods is the use of resistant crop varieties to water-logging. while most of the agricultural crops are susceptible to prolonged flooding, there are species and varieties that are capable or have been genetically modified to withstand the impact of prolonged flooding (Mustroph et al., 2018). Most of the related research work was done on crops of maize, barley and soyabean. Most of the promising traits for flood tolerance are anatomical adaptations such as aerenchyma formation, the formation of a barrier against radial oxygen loss and the growth of adventitious roots. The cultivar differences in flooding tolerance exists in crops like maize, wheat and barley (Mustroph et al., 2018). Some of the resistant varieties like cowpea and chickpea are more resistant to floods than other crop varieties because the legumes can grow adventitious roots rapidly, besides possessing barriers that reduce radial O2 losses (Lai et al., 2021). The rice crop particularly of lowlands rice species is popular since they could thrive in flooded conditions due to the development of aerenchyma that facilitated the movement of oxygen to the roots. Other rice land races are even more resistant and they can survive complete submergence after more than one week (Nishiuchi et al., 2012). The tolerance of crops to floods is determined by various factors including the kind of crop species, the age of crops and time they are submerged in floods. The young plants and seedlings may be more susceptible to the destruction by floods as opposed to the old ones. Prevention of serious losses can also be achieved through the adoption and planting of flood-tolerant varieties of crops to reduce losses incurred because of floods in the agriculture sector and contribute to more stable agricultural production in these challenging environments (Elanchezhian et al., 2013).

Strategies to mitigate the effects of extreme temperatures

Cultivation of heat-resistant crop varieties

As the global temperature continues to rise, the need to come up with crop species that are resistant to heat is also becoming relevant in ensuring that farming production is active in most regions. These are genetically modified varieties that are not susceptible to high temperatures and withstand extreme temperatures without loss of yields. It has been discovered that a considerable number of the crops are heat-tolerant. There are several genes that regulate crop heat response and also thermotolerance alleles in crops. Some of the varieties of beans that are heat tolerant include crowder peas, long beans and tropical pole beans (Sita et al., 2017). Some of the herbs resistant to heat include basil, oregano, rosemary, sage and thyme most of which are found in warmer climates. Fruits that are able to withstand high temperatures include strawberry guava, mulberry, citrus, pomegranate, loquat, figs and grapes (Zhu et al., 2024). Other such flowers include angelonia, marigolds, vinca and zinnias which are also known to be heat-tolerant. Certain varieties of staple crops have also been made to be resistant to heat. There is also research and development of corn, soybean and wheat which are resistant to heat. Planting non-sensitive varieties, as well as altering the planting time so that it is not aligned with the hottest season of the summer, would also contribute to making crops more resistant. A total replacement of a heat-season garden may be needed in regions with hot growing seasons to potentially make additional harvests because of the few tolerant plants. Existence of a variety of heat resistant crops offers alternatives to the farmers to modify their crop rotation to the impact of warmer climatic conditions and take advantage of the negative impact of heat waves.

Application of shading techniques

An appropriate response in countering the effects of too much heat on farm products is a shading system. Shading reduces the amount of direct sunlight that is received by the plants thereby reducing the temperature and heat stress. Waterproof shade cloths are woven or knitted canvas referred to as shade cloth; they are available in varying densities which refers to the percentage of light blocked by the shade cloth. Shade cloths with the density of 30-50 percent will be recommended to reduce the intensity of heat and light and sufficient sunlight to complete photosynthesis in most vegetables (Yasoda et al., 2018). Low shade structures also include low tunnels that are cheaply made by using benders.Natural methods of shading can also be used. The shade structures like pergolas or arbors should be in strategic positioning in order to protect one when the day is hot to the extent that it becomes dangerous. It is possible to develop natural cooling by planting of tall shade trees and bushes around the garden or field. The heat-sensitive plants can be rescued by the shade which is offered by the already existing structures or the taller plants like corn.Shade of any type can be used to reduce ambient temperature in the area of plants at least 10 degrees Fahrenheit and possibly further, which can potentially prevent plants as well as extreme temperatures triggering dormancy (Yarnvudhi et al., 2022). Shading may lead to yield increment and quality enhancement in hot places by reducing the element of heat stress. 

Strategies to mitigate effect of frost 

Frost insurance of agricultural crops during cold spells is extremely crucial in yields insurance and a variety of agronomic measures are able to be applied to achieve this. These plans may be subjected into passive and active protection. Passive protection incorporates measures that are implemented before a frost night to reduce the risk such as planting site selection that allows cold air to drain, selection of plant varieties that flower later in the season or more frost-resistant, plant covers and non-cultivation of soil that releases heat (Smith, et al., 2019). Active protection procedures are implemented before or slightly after frost event to raise the temperature of the areas surrounding the plants. Overhead sprinkler irrigation is another very active method of frost protection that is also popular and economical. When it comes to water spraying on the crops, it is frozen and releases the latent heat which raises the temperature of the air surrounding the plants and never allows the plants to be exposed to temperatures lower than the damaging level (Liu et al., 2025). The row cover made of technology-plastic or fabric can be used to insulate small fruits and vegetables and provide a physical barrier against frost.Mulching of the plants can also be done to give some form of protection to the roots. The simpler solution, which can be applied in larger areas, like the mature orchards, involves wind machines that can be used to mix the cold air in the lower section of the ground with the warmer air in the upper section to raise the average temperature in the orchard, but can be costly and needs more labor (Pan et al., 2024). Depending on the type of crops covered, the severity and the season when the frost is expected and the resources available, frost protection method depends.

Selection of cold-tolerant crop varieties

Naturally, selecting and growing crops that are more resistant to low temperatures is one of the leading agronomic ways of minimizing the impact of frost on crops and crops that survive winter in regions where cold spells occur. Plant breeders have developed numerous varieties, which are able to withstand low temperature in comparison to others. To illustrate, one of the categories includes cool-season and warm-season vegetables and the first group (radish, broccoli and kohlrabi) is generally resistant to light frosts (Wen et al., 2024). The warm season vegetables will suffer more due to cold and they are to be planted after the last frost, that is, tomatoes, peppers, squash, etc.Winter wheat is special crop that is created to survive the cold winter weather even in case of extreme cold climate that lacks snow cover can also damage. Effective use of cold-resistant varieties specially adapted to the local climate conditions is necessitated by the successful production of crops during cold areas with cold spells and frost (Jan et al., 2024). The knowledge of the critical temperatures of different crops at different growth stages is also fundamental in making good requirements regarding planting and frost protection.

CONCLUSION

Extreme climatic conditions including drought, floods, heat waves, cold waves and storms are becoming major disruptive factors in agriculture threatening crop growth, yields and food security in the world. In order to overcome such challenges, resilience may be enhanced using various agronomic measures. Drip irrigation and smart irrigation are water-saving techniques that can be used to save water in periods of dry conditions, whereas breeding and adoption of stress-resistant varieties of crops will yield better productivity during poor seasons. Practices like mulching, cover cropping and reduced tillage of the soil enhance the retention of water and nutrient cycle thus facilitating plant growth. Diversification of the farming systems such as intercropping and agroforestry makes the farming systems more stable and precision agriculture equipment enables timely data to be gathered so that they can make informed decisions. The policies, research and infrastructure promoting climate-smart agriculture are urged to make farmers concentrate on water management and soil health as the basis of resilience. The sustainability of these efforts in the long-term should be achieved through continuous monitoring, adaptation and consideration of socio-economic factors, particularly to the smallholders. Finally, the implementation of such strategies within the agricultural systems is considered to be one of the ways to develop resiliency and provide food security during the more unpredictable climate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and guidance received from their respective departments during the preparation of this review article. The present study was supported by the Department of Agronomy, whose facilities and academic environment greatly contributed to the successful completion of this work.

Disclaimers

The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Review Article

    Extreme Weather Adaptations- Agronomic Strategies for Resilient Crop Systems: A Review

    C
    Chebrolu Sravani1,*
    0009-0002-6736-5170
    M
    Murugesan Mohana Keerthi1
    B
    Boda Somraj2
    G
    Guda Bhargavi1
    S
    Shende Amit Basveshwar1
    K
    K. Damodar1
    1Department of Agronomy, SR University, Warangal-506 371, Telangana, India.
    2Department of Horticulture, SR University, Warangal-506 371, Telangana, India.

    ABSTRACT

    The rising rate and severity of extreme events such as irregular climatic patterns are a great threat to the world agricultural productivity and food security. The review examines key agronomic measures that can be used to improve the resilience of the agricultural crop systems to these problems. Such resilience is necessary to the extent that there is a stable food supply to a rising world population. This discussion summarizes the existing studies to outline successful strategies to cope with drought, floods, heatwave and cold waves. Some of the agronomic strategies that have been referred to are the adoption of water efficient irrigation methods, the choice and breeding of varieties of crops that are stress tolerant, adoption of soil health management practices, diversification of cropping systems through inter-cropping and agroforestry, adoption of precision agricultural technologies and data analytics. A combination of these strategies depending on the regional and climatic conditions is required to create sound and sustainable agricultural systems that will be able to overcome the rising challenges of extreme weather. The next round of research needs to be on how the combined effects of the extreme events are compounded and the socio-economic factors that affect the adoption of these resilience practices.

    INTRODUCTION

    Extreme weather conditions comprising drought, flood, heatwave, cold spells and storms are becoming a common occurrence in the world and are starting to take its toll on agricultural crop systems. These events are characterized by severe deviations of the usual weather conditions and they are likely to exceed the historical variation in its scale, frequency and duration (Vogel et al., 2019). The scientific community demonstrates that the rise of the global temperatures and the increase of extreme weather events are definitely correlated. The climate change is not a gradual increase in the average temperatures, but it is defined by the rise in the volatility of the weather and dispersion of the events that can severely disrupt the established agricultural operations (Bobea et al., 2020). This shift from predictable weather in the respect of seasonal changes to more unpredictable and extreme weather demand a radical reassessment of the traditional approach to farming activities.The number of researches explaining the subtle impact of these extreme weather conditions is the statement of the omnipresence and multi-dimensionality of the risk to agriculture (Farah et al., 2025). The consequences are wide spread; decrease in the yields of crops and their low quality, complete failure of crops to prolonged destruction of agricultural lands. This vulnerability demands a complex and integrated solution of resilience to improve the crop systems (Li et al., 2025) (Fig 1). In response to such growing demands, the concept of resilient crop systems has driven the need to initiate crop systems that are resistant and resilient to extreme weather disturbances and also productive (Malhi et al., 2021). Agronomic strategies are the primary source of this resilience (Fig 2). This include different farm management practices that are supposed to improve the ability of the crops and the agricultural systems to endure adverse weather conditions.

    Fig 1: Impact of climate change on agriculture.



    Fig 2: Building climate resilience in agriculture.



    Impacts of extreme weather conditions on agricultural crop systems

    Drought

    Drought refers to the situation when the availability of rainfall is low or absent and significantly reduces the supply of water to support agricultural productivity (Dos et al., 2022). Besides direct losses of production, droughts can also affect the downstream industries, such as food processors and reduce the demand of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and labour at the farm (Qiao et al., 2024). Plants exhibit certain physiological adaptations to conserve and store water under drought conditions. They include leaf rolling, in which the leaf becomes a ball to reduce the area exposed to the sun and stomatal closure, in which the loss of water to the surroundings through the transpiration process is limited, though at the expense of the plants not being able to photosynthesize (Wang et al., 2023). This may also lead to poor pollination particularly to specialty crops like maize, sorghum, rice, groundnut as they are highly sensitive at flowering stage (Yu et al., 2024). Droughts have long-term effects on the health of the soil, whereby the water holding capacity of the soil is declined and also alter the process of nutrient cycling. The impacts of the drought are not uniform across the agricultural sectors; the specific crops with higher water demands and returns per hectare are often more vulnerable to economic losses under the drought condition as compared to the field crops (Haghpanah et al., 2024). Rain-fed agriculture also makes the agricultural systems very susceptible to drought, as they have no access to the deeper water resources.The impact of droughts is localized and some areas are more severely affected by droughts compared to others proving the need to take location-specific measures (Ali et al., 2024).

    Floods

    Floods and extreme rainfall on the farm lands are a significant menace to the crop production largely due to the unavailability of oxygen at the root zone (Manghwar et al., 2024). when the  soil pores are saturated with water,  oxygen availability is reduced which is essential for the  respiration of the plant roots and the absorption of nutrients. This oxygen deficit can lead to the reduction in growth rate, wilting and subsequent death of the plants, with seedlings and young plants being particularly affected (Renziehausen et al., 2024). The occurrence of floods is determined by the duration and intensity of floods, the temperature of soil and atmosphere and it plays a significant role in determining the extent of loss of crops. Floods also cause a rise in root rot diseases and spread other water-borne diseases (Ngumbi et al., 2025). Furthermore, the flood water can cause huge soil erosion, in which the top soil and other important nutrients are swept away and hence reducing the future crop yield and its productivity. The eroded soil could also be moved to other sites, which block the drainage paths and conceal vegetation (Meliho et al., 2021).

    Physically, floodwaters could destroy the agricultural infrastructure such as drainage system, buildings, storage and irrigation systems that are expensive to restore and impact farming activities (Rupngam et al., 2024). The long-term implications on soil health in the case of flooding include soil compaction which restricts the air space and water permeability and replacement of aerobic by anaerobic bacteria (Das et al., 2025). These changes can lead to the adverse impact on the soil structure, nutrient supply and the soil fertility that would affect the agricultural productivity in the future (Srivastava et al., 2023).

    Heatwaves

    The agricultural crops were subjected to excessive physiological pressure caused by the heat waves due to the long period extreme high temperatures leading to the reduction of photosynthesis and other forms of crop damage. There is a high probability of excess heat disrupting the essential processes of plants including photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration, ultimately lowering the overall growth and productivity (Mondal et al., 2023). This drought will lead to stunted plant growth and reduction in percentage of water content in the leaves which lead to the further deterioration of photosynthetic output (Rajasekharan et al., 2026). This too can affect the quality of the products in the harvest and has been recorded to produce shriveled grains and scalded fruits during the heat stress. Plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes and xanthophylls, which are vital in photosynthesis, may also be damaged in high temperatures at cellular levels (Hu et al., 2020). Heat can also induce the denaturation or destruction of proteins in the plant and the activity of enzymes and other metabolism (Bal et al., 2025). The heatwaves do not only affect crops, but also have a negative impact on livestock (Sajjanar et al., 2015). 

    Cold spells

    The cold spells are sudden and long spell of cold conditions that can have a direct impact on farm crops leads to frost damages, retarded growth and poor yields (Yu et al., 2025). The severity of frost damage is determined by the lowest temperature attained, the duration of a cold period, the stage of the plant development process and the presence of protective areas such as snow cover (Rooney et al., 2024). Frost also has the potential to destroy flower buds more than leaf buds and therefore it may prevent fruit production (Wagner et al., 2021). Due to the freeze-thaw condition, the plant can be heaved out of the soil exposing it to cold fatalities and drying up. Specially targeted crops such as Maize, soyabean, rice, sorghum are generally particularly vulnerable to cold damage especially at the germination, seedling stage and flowering stage. Deep frost can be employed in control of certain soil-borne pests and diseases because overwintering stages are frozen (Sahoo et al., 2022). There is also a possibility that freeze-thaw cycles will further improve the soil structure creating cracks and fissures to make it easier to be penetrated by water and roots (Jiang et al., 2024). 

    Storms

    Severe storms cause such immense damage to agricultural crop systems as thunderstorms, hurricanes and hailstorms through hail, high winds and the associated floods. The force of the flowing water in floods may also break or lodge the crops plants. The hailstorms will also cause much littering of the leaves that will reduce the photosynthetic ability of the plant and this will also impact degree of yield, or even death. The crops are also susceptible to hail damage, though the vulnerability of crops to hail damage is determined by the type of crop as well as the stage of its development with some crops like corn (tasseling) and cotton (at bud) being the most vulnerable to hail damage (Shannon et al., 2015). Storms can cause economic losses and these losses include damages to crop, rangeland and agricultural infrastructure. 

    Agronomic strategies for enhancing crop resilience to drought 

    Efficient irrigation techniques  

    Efficient irrigation systems is the most significant factor in ensuring the agriculture activities in the areas of severe drought. More correct mode of water application is drip irrigation since it uses a system of pipes and emitters to deliver water to root zone of the plants (Guo et al., 2024). This method will escape evaporation and runoff losses leading to large water savings and water use efficiency (Wang et al., 2021). Sprinkler systems can also be implemented in place of flood irrigation but they should be properly designed and managed. The new sprinkler systems such as the low-pressure system and those better in uniformity of water distribution could save wastage in comparison to the old ones (Chauhdary et al., 2023). However, they can be affected by the wind and evaporation and in that regard close waiting and control is necessary. 

    One of the biggest changes in water management is smart irrigation systems that can utilize sensors, weather information and data analytics to manage the utilization of water based on the actual needs of plants, as well as the prevailing weather and environmental parameters. Among them is one sensor known as soil moisture sensors that provide real-time information of the amount of water present in root zone to enable the farmers to irrigate at the most precise time and where the irrigation is needed (Vallejo et al., 2023). Precision irrigation is a fairly accepted tool in the active management of water in the dynamic climatic conditions, among other advanced technologies.

    Selection of drought-tolerant crop varieties

    The selection and cultivating of crops which are already resistant to the drought conditions is one of the fundamental ways to enhance resilience to drought. Numerous species and varieties of plants have evolved or been breed to be able to thrive on limited water. For example, various varieties of pearl millet (HHB 67) are developed which are widely cultivated in dry land areas (Murali et al., 2025). Other crop varieties of corn include the Anasazi Sweet and Daymon Morgan of Kentucky which is resistant to drier regions. Drought resistant grains include amaranth, barley (Ethiopian Hulless, Jet, Milan), quinoa and varieties of wheat, including Hard Red Spring, Kamut and White Sonoran.

    It is crucial to consider the specific climate, the soils and other environmental conditions of the area while selecting the drought-resistant varieties of crops. One varietal performance could be different with variations in temperatures, humidity and soil structure. Ongoing breeding programs continue to develop improved varieties of most of the staple crops that are resistant to drought with a view of ensuring that they would be more resilient and productive under the circumstances of water shortage (Yadav et al., 2016).

    Soil moisture conservation practices

    Enhancing the natural ability of the soil to store and retain moisture is the fundamental way of drought resilience. There are many agronomic practices that may be undertaken to increase the soil water retention capacity. Mulching refers to the covering of the surface of the soil with organic or inorganic compounds such as straws or wood chips or plastic covers (Lopes et al., 2025). Mulch is a protective cover and it reduces the surface evaporation of soil, regulates soil temperatures and also suppresses weeds which aids in soil moisture preservation (Ramos et al., 2024).

    The other practice that has helped in ameliorating the quality of soil and water storage is the concept of cover cropping whereby during the off-season, plants that are not cash crops are planted to protect and enrich the soil. The cover crops would improve the soil structure by improving the organic matter that would improve water holding capacity as well as enabling the water to penetrate the soil easily. They will also help to prevent soil erosion, weeds and even restore nitrogen to the atmosphere, rendering the soil fertility to cultivate other crops (Haruna et al., 2023).

    With reduced tillage of soil, such as conservation tillage and no-till agriculture, the level of soil disturbance is lowered and the soil network of pores and structure stabilize to absorb and retain water. The practices will also help with minimal evaporation and soil erosion due to the crop residues present on the soil. The second relevant thing is that the organic matter in the soil is increased through application of compost or animal manure that would improve the soil structure and the capacity to hold the water since organic matter would serve as a sponge to absorb and hold the water (Munirathnam et al., 2026).

    Agronomic strategies for managing excessive rainfall and flooding

    Implementation of effective drainage systems

    Proper drainage systems are necessary especially in the areas where rainfall and flooding are relatively common in order to prevent water-logging and consequently its adverse effects on crop production. The agricultural drainage systems must be made in such a way that it removes the additional water in the soil and at root zone to improve the aeration of the soil and to enhance the microclimate of the plant. These systems are of two types surface drainage and subsurface drainage. Surface drainage seeks to eliminate the excess supply of water on the surface of the land and this is through digging up pits and channels or graded surfaces that drain the fields. This holds particularly in such landscapes where the slope is not very sharp and can easily minimize ponding and waterlogging. However, subsurface drainage involves some form of pipes or tiles with holes that are drilled underground to regulate the water table and to recover the excess water within the root zone (Muhammad et al., 2011). The technique is applicable in the soils where water level is high or in soils that are not very permeable and soils where surface runoff alone is  insufficient (Manik et al., 2019). Vertical drainage systems can be embraced in locations with tight or deep soils where drills are done and permeable materials installed into the bank with an aim of promoting water flow.The flow and the capacity of the system to drain the surplus water may be obstructed by any debris or sedimentation. The benefits of effective drainage are improved soil aeration leading to greater penetration of roots and uptake of nutrients by the growing plants; greater accessibility to farming practices; longer growing periods due to faster soil warming and drying in the spring and reduced losses of crops to waterlogging. Another water management approach used in the fields is to ensure crops become more resilient to excess rainfall and floods (Elnashar et al., 2023).

    Raised bed planting and other water management techniques

    Planting in raised beds is an excellent agronomic practice in managing the excessive rainfalls as well as improving drainage where the soils have poor or high water table. Raised beds are simply areas where plants are planted above the ground level that surrounds  typically with frames made of wood, concrete, or other building materials. This height will provide the soil in the bed with a better drainage and additional space to roots of the plants grow above the saturated soil conditions. This will be due to the improved drainage thereby reducing the occurrence of water logging and root rot, which is a frequent phenomenon in the flood prone areas (Hassan et al., 2005). A better drainage and water retention shall also be achieved through the enhancement of soil structure i.e. by incorporating organic matter to the soil (compost or well-rotted manure) (Sayre et al., 2004). Raised bed planting is one of such water management strategy that render crop resilience in flood prone environment (Obia et al., 2018).

    Utilization of flood-tolerant crop varieties

    Another agronomic approach of managing heavy rainfalls and floods is the use of resistant crop varieties to water-logging. while most of the agricultural crops are susceptible to prolonged flooding, there are species and varieties that are capable or have been genetically modified to withstand the impact of prolonged flooding (Mustroph et al., 2018). Most of the related research work was done on crops of maize, barley and soyabean. Most of the promising traits for flood tolerance are anatomical adaptations such as aerenchyma formation, the formation of a barrier against radial oxygen loss and the growth of adventitious roots. The cultivar differences in flooding tolerance exists in crops like maize, wheat and barley (Mustroph et al., 2018). Some of the resistant varieties like cowpea and chickpea are more resistant to floods than other crop varieties because the legumes can grow adventitious roots rapidly, besides possessing barriers that reduce radial O2 losses (Lai et al., 2021). The rice crop particularly of lowlands rice species is popular since they could thrive in flooded conditions due to the development of aerenchyma that facilitated the movement of oxygen to the roots. Other rice land races are even more resistant and they can survive complete submergence after more than one week (Nishiuchi et al., 2012). The tolerance of crops to floods is determined by various factors including the kind of crop species, the age of crops and time they are submerged in floods. The young plants and seedlings may be more susceptible to the destruction by floods as opposed to the old ones. Prevention of serious losses can also be achieved through the adoption and planting of flood-tolerant varieties of crops to reduce losses incurred because of floods in the agriculture sector and contribute to more stable agricultural production in these challenging environments (Elanchezhian et al., 2013).

    Strategies to mitigate the effects of extreme temperatures

    Cultivation of heat-resistant crop varieties

    As the global temperature continues to rise, the need to come up with crop species that are resistant to heat is also becoming relevant in ensuring that farming production is active in most regions. These are genetically modified varieties that are not susceptible to high temperatures and withstand extreme temperatures without loss of yields. It has been discovered that a considerable number of the crops are heat-tolerant. There are several genes that regulate crop heat response and also thermotolerance alleles in crops. Some of the varieties of beans that are heat tolerant include crowder peas, long beans and tropical pole beans (Sita et al., 2017). Some of the herbs resistant to heat include basil, oregano, rosemary, sage and thyme most of which are found in warmer climates. Fruits that are able to withstand high temperatures include strawberry guava, mulberry, citrus, pomegranate, loquat, figs and grapes (Zhu et al., 2024). Other such flowers include angelonia, marigolds, vinca and zinnias which are also known to be heat-tolerant. Certain varieties of staple crops have also been made to be resistant to heat. There is also research and development of corn, soybean and wheat which are resistant to heat. Planting non-sensitive varieties, as well as altering the planting time so that it is not aligned with the hottest season of the summer, would also contribute to making crops more resistant. A total replacement of a heat-season garden may be needed in regions with hot growing seasons to potentially make additional harvests because of the few tolerant plants. Existence of a variety of heat resistant crops offers alternatives to the farmers to modify their crop rotation to the impact of warmer climatic conditions and take advantage of the negative impact of heat waves.

    Application of shading techniques

    An appropriate response in countering the effects of too much heat on farm products is a shading system. Shading reduces the amount of direct sunlight that is received by the plants thereby reducing the temperature and heat stress. Waterproof shade cloths are woven or knitted canvas referred to as shade cloth; they are available in varying densities which refers to the percentage of light blocked by the shade cloth. Shade cloths with the density of 30-50 percent will be recommended to reduce the intensity of heat and light and sufficient sunlight to complete photosynthesis in most vegetables (Yasoda et al., 2018). Low shade structures also include low tunnels that are cheaply made by using benders.Natural methods of shading can also be used. The shade structures like pergolas or arbors should be in strategic positioning in order to protect one when the day is hot to the extent that it becomes dangerous. It is possible to develop natural cooling by planting of tall shade trees and bushes around the garden or field. The heat-sensitive plants can be rescued by the shade which is offered by the already existing structures or the taller plants like corn.Shade of any type can be used to reduce ambient temperature in the area of plants at least 10 degrees Fahrenheit and possibly further, which can potentially prevent plants as well as extreme temperatures triggering dormancy (Yarnvudhi et al., 2022). Shading may lead to yield increment and quality enhancement in hot places by reducing the element of heat stress. 

    Strategies to mitigate effect of frost 

    Frost insurance of agricultural crops during cold spells is extremely crucial in yields insurance and a variety of agronomic measures are able to be applied to achieve this. These plans may be subjected into passive and active protection. Passive protection incorporates measures that are implemented before a frost night to reduce the risk such as planting site selection that allows cold air to drain, selection of plant varieties that flower later in the season or more frost-resistant, plant covers and non-cultivation of soil that releases heat (Smith, et al., 2019). Active protection procedures are implemented before or slightly after frost event to raise the temperature of the areas surrounding the plants. Overhead sprinkler irrigation is another very active method of frost protection that is also popular and economical. When it comes to water spraying on the crops, it is frozen and releases the latent heat which raises the temperature of the air surrounding the plants and never allows the plants to be exposed to temperatures lower than the damaging level (Liu et al., 2025). The row cover made of technology-plastic or fabric can be used to insulate small fruits and vegetables and provide a physical barrier against frost.Mulching of the plants can also be done to give some form of protection to the roots. The simpler solution, which can be applied in larger areas, like the mature orchards, involves wind machines that can be used to mix the cold air in the lower section of the ground with the warmer air in the upper section to raise the average temperature in the orchard, but can be costly and needs more labor (Pan et al., 2024). Depending on the type of crops covered, the severity and the season when the frost is expected and the resources available, frost protection method depends.

    Selection of cold-tolerant crop varieties

    Naturally, selecting and growing crops that are more resistant to low temperatures is one of the leading agronomic ways of minimizing the impact of frost on crops and crops that survive winter in regions where cold spells occur. Plant breeders have developed numerous varieties, which are able to withstand low temperature in comparison to others. To illustrate, one of the categories includes cool-season and warm-season vegetables and the first group (radish, broccoli and kohlrabi) is generally resistant to light frosts (Wen et al., 2024). The warm season vegetables will suffer more due to cold and they are to be planted after the last frost, that is, tomatoes, peppers, squash, etc.Winter wheat is special crop that is created to survive the cold winter weather even in case of extreme cold climate that lacks snow cover can also damage. Effective use of cold-resistant varieties specially adapted to the local climate conditions is necessitated by the successful production of crops during cold areas with cold spells and frost (Jan et al., 2024). The knowledge of the critical temperatures of different crops at different growth stages is also fundamental in making good requirements regarding planting and frost protection.

    CONCLUSION

    Extreme climatic conditions including drought, floods, heat waves, cold waves and storms are becoming major disruptive factors in agriculture threatening crop growth, yields and food security in the world. In order to overcome such challenges, resilience may be enhanced using various agronomic measures. Drip irrigation and smart irrigation are water-saving techniques that can be used to save water in periods of dry conditions, whereas breeding and adoption of stress-resistant varieties of crops will yield better productivity during poor seasons. Practices like mulching, cover cropping and reduced tillage of the soil enhance the retention of water and nutrient cycle thus facilitating plant growth. Diversification of the farming systems such as intercropping and agroforestry makes the farming systems more stable and precision agriculture equipment enables timely data to be gathered so that they can make informed decisions. The policies, research and infrastructure promoting climate-smart agriculture are urged to make farmers concentrate on water management and soil health as the basis of resilience. The sustainability of these efforts in the long-term should be achieved through continuous monitoring, adaptation and consideration of socio-economic factors, particularly to the smallholders. Finally, the implementation of such strategies within the agricultural systems is considered to be one of the ways to develop resiliency and provide food security during the more unpredictable climate.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and guidance received from their respective departments during the preparation of this review article. The present study was supported by the Department of Agronomy, whose facilities and academic environment greatly contributed to the successful completion of this work.

    Disclaimers

    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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