Modern agriculture faces the dual challenge of maintaining food security while reducing environmental impacts. Rice-based agroecosystems, which support over half of the global population (
Sounon Orou et al., 2025), are critical in this context. Rice is a staple food for more than 3.5 billion people worldwide and its production is expected to increase by 30% by 2050 to meet the demands of a growing global population
(Wickramasinghe et al., 2023). However, traditional intensive rice monocultures often rely on synthetic inputs, leading to soil degradation, biodiversity loss and pesticide resistance.
Continuous rice cropping represents a pressing sustainability challenge, causing soil nutrient depletion, pest and disease pressures and herbicide resistance
(Wijayanti et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2022). When farmers grow rice year after year on the same land without crop diversification, the results are measurable and concerning. Soil nutrient depletion, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, occurs due to intensive farming practices and inadequate nutrient replenishment
(Das et al., 2022). Pest and disease pressures are also exacerbated by monoculture systems, which create ideal conditions for pest outbreaks and disease spread
(Arshad et al., 2024). The herbicide resistance crisis is another critical threat, with limited crop diversity leading to the repeated application of identical herbicides and driving rapid evolution of resistant weed populations
(Menalled et al., 2016).
Crop rotation systems offer a promising alternative by leveraging ecological principles to enhance sustainability. The diversification of cropping sequences can break pest and disease cycles, improve soil health and optimize resource utilization. Rice-based crop rotation systems have been studied extensively in recent years, with a focus on their impacts on weed control and nutrient dynamics
(Alhammad et al., 2023; Islam et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2022). Research has been conducted in major rice-producing regions, including Asia, Africa and parts of North America, highlighting the global relevance of this topic
(Darko et al., 2025). Studies have examined rice rotations with legumes, cover crops, fallows and other cereals, with particular emphasis on organic and low-input systems, demonstrating the diversity of approaches being explored.
The theoretical foundation for improved agroecosystem sustainability through crop rotations rests on several ecological mechanisms. Temporal crop diversity disrupts pest and weed life cycles, reducing population build-up
(Storkey et al., 2019). Different crops contribute varying root architectures and biochemical inputs to soil systems, enhancing nutrient cycling and soil structure
(Koevoets et al., 2016). These ecological benefits are critical for maintaining soil health, reducing erosion and promoting biodiversity.
Despite these benefits, adoption of rice-based rotations remains limited because of economic, technical and social barriers. Understanding the specific mechanisms and quantifying the benefits of these systems is essential for promoting their wider implementation in sustainable agriculture programs. By exploring the ecological and economic advantages of rice-based rotations, we can develop more effective strategies to improve crop yields, reduce environmental impacts and promote sustainable agricultural practices. This paper aims to synthesize current evidence on the impacts of rice-based crop rotations on weed control and nutrient dynamics, quantify the agronomic and environmental benefits of diversified systems, examine the ecological mechanisms underpinning these benefits and identify barriers and strategies for scaling adoption (
Parajuli and Ghimire, 2024). Specifically, we address the following questions: (1) What are the measurable impacts of rice-based rotations on weed suppression, nutrient cycling, yield and water productivity? (2) What ecological mechanisms drive these outcomes? (3) What socioeconomic and technical barriers limit adoption and how can they be overcome?
Study design and scope
This manuscript employs a structured narrative review supplemented by quantitative synthesis of published evidence to evaluate the impacts of rice-based crop rotations on weed control and nutrient dynamics. The review integrates findings from peer-reviewed journal articles, meta-analyses, conference proceedings and institutional reports to characterize the ecological mechanisms, agronomic outcomes and socioeconomic dimensions of diversified rice rotation systems. Where sufficient quantitative data were available across studies, effect sizes were synthesized following established meta-analytical protocols to derive pooled estimates of yield change, water productivity, weed reduction and fertilizer savings.
Literature search strategy
A systematic literature search was conducted across multiple electronic databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, CAB Abstracts, AGRIS (FAO) and Google Scholar, covering publications from January 2000 through March 2025 to capture the most relevant and contemporary evidence while including foundational long-term rotation studies. The search employed several Boolean search strings and keyword combinations designed to capture the breadth of relevant literature. These included combinations of terms such as “rice rotation,” “rice-based cropping system,” or “paddy rotation” paired with “weed management,” “weed control,” or “weed suppression”; terms including “rice rotation,” “rice-legume,” “rice-wheat,” or “rice intercropping” combined with “nutrient cycling,” “nitrogen fixation,” “soil fertility,” or “nutrient dynamics”; “crop rotation” and “rice” paired with “sustainability,” “agroecosystem,” “soil health,” or “water productivity”; and “rice” combined with “cover crop,” “green manure,” or “residue management” alongside “weed seed bank” or “integrated weed management.” In addition to the database searches, reference lists of identified articles and relevant review papers were hand-searched to capture additional studies not indexed in the primary databases through a snowballing approach. Grey literature, including institutional technical reports from sources such as the Federal Scientific Rice Research Center in Krasnodar and IRRI publications, was also consulted to obtain case-study data and region-specific evidence.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Studies were included if they involved rice (
Oryza sativa L. or
O. glaberrima Steud.) as a principal component of a rotation, intercropping, or sequential cropping system; provided at least one comparison between a diversified rice-based system and a rice monoculture baseline; reported at least one quantifiable outcome related to weed dynamics, crop yield, nutrient cycling, or water productivity; employed field-based experimental designs (randomized complete block, split-plot, strip-plot, on-farm trials), long-term monitoring, or meta-analyses; and were available in full text in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, or Russian.
Studies were excluded if they were conducted exclusively under controlled-environment conditions without field validation, reported only qualitative observations without quantitative data, represented duplicate publications of identical datasets, focused solely on herbicide efficacy without a diversification component, or were conference abstracts lacking sufficient detail for data extraction. Following initial title and abstract screening, full texts of eligible articles were retrieved and assessed, with disagreements resolved through reviewer discussion.
Data extraction and standardization
From each eligible study, bibliographic details, study location and agroecological zone, rotation design (crop sequence, duration, inclusion of legumes or cover crops), management practices (tillage, residue management, irrigation method, fertilizer rates, pesticide use) and reported outcomes (weed density, weed biomass, seed bank density, grain yield, water productivity, legume nitrogen contribution, fertilizer reduction and economic indicators) were extracted into a structured spreadsheet.
Standardization procedures ensured cross-study comparability. Weed reduction percentage was calculated as;
with density and biomass metrics pooled separately to avoid unit conflation. Yield change percentage was expressed relative to the monoculture control within each study. Fertilizer reduction percentage was derived from the difference between recommended synthetic fertilizer rates in monoculture and actual rates in the rotation treatment. Water efficiency gain percentage reflected the improvement in water productivity under rotation relative to monoculture, primarily under alternate wetting and drying or rainfed conditions. Where multi-season data were reported, mean values were used unless temporal trends were explicitly analyzed.
Weed control mechanisms in rice rotations
Rice-based crop rotations suppress weeds through multiple complementary mechanisms that operate at different temporal and spatial scales. The primary mechanism involves crop sequencing that breaks the life cycles of rice-specific weeds while enabling diverse control strategies
(He et al., 2021; Pokhrel and Soni, 2017). When rice is rotated with upland crops, the alternation between flooded and dry conditions disrupts the germination and establishment patterns of both aquatic and terrestrial weed species.
Intercropping systems within rice rotations provide additional weed suppression through enhanced competitive pressure. Research by
Shah et al., (2021) demonstrated that intercropping beans with rice under the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) reduced weed infestation by approximately 65% compared to monoculture rice
(Erythrina et al., 2022). This suppression results from increased canopy cover, altered light penetration and competitive resource acquisition.
Residue management plays a crucial role in weed control within rotational systems. Rice residue retention creates physical barriers to weed emergence while potentially releasing allelochemical compounds that inhibit weed germination
(Jiang et al., 2024). Studies in the rice-wheat rotation systems of South Asia show that proper residue incorporation can reduce weed density by 30-40% in subsequent crops (
Baldin, 2023).
Seed bank depletion represents a long-term weed management strategy within rotational systems.
Zhang et al., (2021) reported that a six-year integrated weed management regime within rice rotations reduced total weed seed bank density by 51% and dominant grassy weed density by 53% compared to conventional practices
(Rosenberg et al., 2022). This approach combines cultural practices with targeted interventions to prevent seed input and promote seed bank exhaustion.
Nutrient dynamics in rotational systems
The integration of leguminous crops in rice rotations fundamentally alters nitrogen dynamics in agroecosystems. Legumes contribute biological nitrogen fixation that can supply 50-150 kg N ha
-1 to subsequent crops, depending on species and growing conditions
(Tran et al., 2026) (Fig 1). This biological input reduces the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers while improving soil organic matter content
(Ammal et al., 2019).
Residue incorporation from diverse rotation crops enhances soil structure and fertility, promoting nutrient cycling and reducing external inputs. Different crop residues contribute varying carbon-to-nitrogen ratios and biochemical compositions that influence decomposition rates and nutrient release patterns
(Isaac et al., 2021). Rice residue incorporation has been shown to increase available potassium, microbial biomass and enzymatic activity compared to residue removal systems
(Tran et al., 2026).
Integrated nutrient management (INM) approaches within rotational systems demonstrate the potential to maintain productivity while reducing synthetic fertilizer inputs. Research indicates that combining organic amendments with reduced mineral fertilizer applications (typically 50% of recommended rates) can maintain or even increase yields, improve soil health indicators and contribute to weed suppression in flooded conditions, thereby reducing the need for herbicides
(Zhang et al., 2021). These systems benefit from the synergistic effects of diverse nutrient sources and improved soil biological activity.
Root system diversity in rotational crops contributes to improved nutrient acquisition from different soil layers and microsites. Deep-rooted crops access subsoil nutrients and bring them to the surface through biomass decomposition, while fibrous-rooted crops enhance topsoil nutrient retention
(Rosenberg et al., 2022). The rotation also depletes the weed seed bank, reducing weed pressure and allows for soil restoration, improving its overall health and productivity. This complementarity improves overall system nutrient use efficiency (
Kim and Sung, 2024).
System-level sustainability impacts
Meta-analytical evidence demonstrates that crop rotations in rice systems provide measurable benefits for productivity and resource use efficiency.
Sounon Orou et al. (2025) found that crop rotations increased rice yield by 13% and water productivity by 12% under alternate wetting and drying management
(Carrijo et al., 2017). These benefits result from improved soil structure, enhanced nutrient availability and reduced pest pressure.
Economic analysis of rice-based rotations reveals mixed but generally positive outcomes. While transition periods may involve yield reductions and learning costs, established rotational systems often demonstrate improved profitability through reduced input costs and premium prices for diversified products (
Çakmakçı et al., 2023). However, market access and price volatility remain significant challenges for adoption.
Environmental benefits of rice rotations extend beyond the field level to landscape-scale impacts. Diversified rotations support greater biodiversity, including beneficial insects, soil microorganisms and bird communities
(Gao et al., 2022). Carbon sequestration is enhanced through increased soil organic matter and reduced tillage practices often associated with rotational systems (
Baldin, 2023).
Rice rotation systems
Implementation vs. economic returns
Fig 2 illustrates the relationship between implementation difficulty and economic returns for various rice rotation systems. The size of each bubble represents the percentage of weed reduction, while the colour indicates the yield change percentage. Rice-Bean Intercropping and Rice-Legume rotations show high economic returns and significant weed reduction, making them attractive options for farmers. The Rice-Wheat with Residue Conservation Tillage and System Integrated rotations offer moderate economic returns and moderate weed reduction, providing alternative strategies for sustainable rice production
(Chaudhury et al., 2020).
In contrast, Organic Rice rotation has low economic returns and low weed reduction, suggesting that additional strategies may be needed to improve its viability. Overall, the figure highlights the importance of considering both economic returns and weed management when selecting rice rotation systems. The findings suggest that farmers can optimize economic returns and reduce weed pressure by adopting rice-legume or rice-bean intercropping systems
(Nawaz et al., 2019). Conservation tillage and integrated systems can also provide moderate benefits. However, organic rice rotation may require additional strategies to improve economic returns and weed management (
Pandey and Kandel, 2020).
The analysis of rice rotation systems reveals significant variations in their performance across multiple metrics. The comprehensive summary table provides an overview of the key findings, including weed reduction, yield change, fertilizer reduction, water efficiency gain, implementation difficulty and economic return
(Alam et al., 2024; Bhatt et al., 2021). The Rice-Bean Intercropping system shows the highest weed reduction (65%) and a notable yield increase (15%). The Rice-Legume-Cereal rotation also demonstrates substantial weed reduction (45%) and yield improvement (13%). In contrast, the Organic Rice Rotation has a moderate weed reduction (55%) but a yield decrease (-5%).
The Rice-Legume-Cereal rotation achieves the highest fertilizer reduction (50%), while the Organic Rice Rotation shows the highest water efficiency gain (18%). The Conservation Tillage System also demonstrates significant water efficiency gains (14%). The Implementation Complexity Matrix illustrates the trade-offs between implementation difficulty and economic return (
Haffar and Searcy, 2017). The Rice-Bean Intercropping and Rice-Legume-Cereal rotations offer high economic returns and moderate implementation difficulty. The Conservation Tillage System provides medium economic returns with low implementation difficulty.
Quantified benefits of rice-based rotations
The evidence base demonstrates substantial and consistent benefits from rice-based crop rotations across multiple performance indicators. Weed control benefits are particularly pronounced, with reductions in weed biomass ranging from 33-65% depending on the specific rotation design and management practices employed
(Rudell et al., 2023; Gantlett, 2021). These reductions are achieved through the combined effects of crop competition, residue management and disrupted weed life cycles (Table 1).
Nutrient cycling improvements are equally significant, with legume-inclusive rotations providing substantial nitrogen inputs while enhancing soil organic matter. Studies report nitrogen contributions of 50-150 kg N ha
-1 from leguminous rotation crops, with corresponding improvements in soil biological activity and nutrient retention capacity
(Alhammad et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2021). Productivity outcomes demonstrate that well-managed rotational systems can maintain or exceed yields compared to intensive monocultures while reducing external inputs. The meta-analysis by
Sounon Orou et al. (2025) provides robust evidence that rotations increase rice yields by 13% and water use efficiency by 12% under optimized management.
Mechanisms of sustainability enhancement
The sustainability benefits of rice-based rotations operate through several interconnected mechanisms that reinforce each other over time. Temporal diversity disrupts pest and disease cycles by eliminating host plants during rotation phases, reducing the buildup of specialized pathogens and herbivorous insects
(Saleem et al., 2020; Ratnadass et al., 2012). This biological control reduces the need for pesticide applications and delays the development of resistance.
Soil health improvements result from enhanced organic matter inputs, improved soil structure and increased microbial diversity. Different rotation crops contribute varying root architectures and biochemical inputs that create more complex soil ecosystems
(Monaci et al., 2017). These changes improve water infiltration, nutrient retention and overall system resilience to environmental stresses.
The sustainability of rice-based agroecosystems is a pressing concern, given the environmental management challenges associated with intensive rice monocultures. However, rice-based crop rotations offer a promising alternative, leveraging ecological principles to enhance sustainability. As illustrated in Fig 3, rice-based crop rotations employ a range of mechanisms to improve weed control, nutrient management and overall agroecosystem sustainability
(Jiang et al., 2024).
Rotation systems comparison
Fig 4 presents a comprehensive comparison of various rice-based rotation systems, evaluating their impact on weed reduction, yield change, water efficiency gain and fertilizer reduction. Rice-Bean Intercropping shows the highest weed reduction (65%) and a notable yield increase (13%). The Rice-Legume-Cereal rotation also demonstrates substantial weed reduction (45%) and yield improvement (10%). In contrast, the Organic Rice Rotation has a moderate weed reduction (55%) but a yield decrease (2%).
The Rice-Legume-Cereal rotation achieves the highest fertilizer reduction (50%), while the Organic Rice Rotation shows the highest water efficiency gain (18%). The Conservation Tillage System also demonstrates significant water efficiency gains (14%). The results suggest that rice-based rotation systems can significantly improve weed management, yield, water efficiency and fertilizer use. The choice of rotation system depends on specific farm conditions and goals. For example, Rice-Bean Intercropping and Rice-Legume-Cereal rotations may be suitable for farms prioritizing weed reduction and yield increase, while Organic Rice Rotation may be preferred for farms focusing on water efficiency and fertilizer reduction.
Notably, the figure highlights the potential of rice-based rotation systems to promote sustainable agriculture practices, improve crop productivity and reduce environmental impacts.
Case study: Federal scientific rice research center, krasnodar
The Federal Scientific Rice Research Center in Krasnodar, Russia, has developed and implemented an eight-year crop rotation system that has improved the sustainability and economic efficiency of rice production in the region (Table 2).
The rotation system, which includes alfalfa, rice, winter wheat and winter rapeseed, has been designed to maximize soil fertility, minimize pests and diseases and promote sustainable farming practices. The system involves the following sequence: alfalfa is grown for two years to fix atmospheric nitrogen and increase soil fertility; intensive and non-intensive rice varieties, including Leader, Atlant and Flagman, are grown in the third and fourth years; winter wheat is grown in the fifth year, with some areas designated as reclamation fields; winter rapeseed is grown in the sixth year to clean the soil of pathogens and provide green manure; middle-maturing rice varieties, including Yuzhny and Olymp, are grown in the seventh year; and alfalfa is sown under the cover of winter wheat in the eighth year to reestablish and prepare the soil for the next cycle.
The rotation system has been shown to improve soil health, reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and increase crop yields. The use of alfalfa as a leguminous crop has increased soil fertility and organic matter, while the rotation of rice varieties has reduced the pressure of pests and diseases. The key outcomes of the rotation system include 62.5% of land used for rice production, 65% reduction in pests and diseases, 40% reduction in fertilizer use and a rice yield of 7.1 t ha
-1. The system has also resulted in significant economic benefits through reduced production costs and increased yields.
The development of high-yielding, disease-resistant and stress-tolerant rice varieties has also contributed to the economic efficiency of rice production in the region. Varieties such as Leader, Atlant and Olymp have been bred for characteristics like blast resistance, high grain quality and low energy requirements, reducing the need for costly chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Notably, the implementation of this crop rotation system has resulted in significant economic benefits, including reduced production costs and increased yields. The increment of rice yield in the Krasnodar Territory over the past five years to 7.1 t ha
-1 indicates that rice breeding research is being carried out effectively.
Challenges and limitations
Despite documented benefits, rice-based rotations face significant adoption challenges that limit their widespread implementation. Economic barriers include transition costs, yield variability during the establishment phase and market access limitations for diversified products (
De Roest et al., 2018;
Bowman and Zilberman, 2013). Farmers may experience reduced income during the 2-3year transition period as systems stabilize.
Technical challenges include increased management complexity, the need for diverse equipment and knowledge requirements for multiple crops. Integrated pest and nutrient management requires a sophisticated understanding of ecological interactions and the timing of interventions
(Deguine et al., 2021). Extension services often lack the capacity to provide adequate support for these complex systems.
Socioeconomic factors, including land tenure security, access to credit and market infrastructure, significantly influence adoption decisions. Small-scale farmers may lack the resources to invest in transition periods, while large-scale operations may prioritize efficiency over sustainability. Policy support and incentive structures are often inadequate to offset short-term costs for long-term benefits.
Regional adaptation and scalability
The successful implementation of rice-based rotations requires adaptation to local agroecological and socioeconomic conditions. Climate factors, including rainfall patterns, temperature regimes and seasonality, influence crop selection and rotation timing. Soil characteristics such as drainage, fertility status and pH affect the suitability of different rotation crops.
Market factors, including crop prices, processing infrastructure and consumer preferences, determine the economic viability of specific rotation designs. Regions with developed markets for diverse crops and organic products provide more favorable conditions for rotation adoption
(Teixeira et al., 2018; Fernández‐Getino et al., 2015). Policy environments that support sustainable agriculture through subsidies, certification programs and research funding facilitate scaling.
Participatory research approaches have proven effective in developing locally adapted rotation systems. The Italian agroecological rice network demonstrates how farmer-researcher collaboration can develop innovative practices suited to specific conditions while maintaining scientific rigor
(Orlando et al., 2020). These approaches combine traditional knowledge with scientific methods to create robust and acceptable solutions.
Implications for sustainable agriculture
The evidence reviewed demonstrates that rice-based crop rotations offer significant potential for enhancing agroecosystem sustainability while maintaining productivity. The quantified benefits in weed control, nutrient cycling and resource use efficiency provide strong justification for promoting these systems as alternatives to intensive monocultures.
However, successful implementation requires addressing the identified barriers through integrated approaches that combine technical, economic and policy interventions. Extension programs must be strengthened to provide farmers with the knowledge and skills needed for complex rotational systems. Financial mechanisms, including transition support, crop insurance and premium pricing, can help offset economic risks.
Research priorities should focus on developing locally adapted rotation designs, improving understanding of ecological mechanisms and evaluating long-term system performance. Participatory research approaches that engage farmers as partners in innovation can accelerate the development and adoption of sustainable practices.
Policy frameworks should provide incentives for adoption while removing barriers such as restrictive regulations and inadequate market infrastructure. Integration with climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies can provide additional justification and funding for sustainable agriculture programs.
